Encyclopedia for Language and Literacy Topic

Commentary on Acquisition of Word Reading and Reading Fluency in English: Voices from the Field

Thu, 28 Feb 2013 21:12:46 EST

As a classroom teacher of young children, understanding and using reading assessment tools is key for monitoring student progress and determining if a child is having reading difficulties. Implementing effective strategies to support reading abilities and meet students' needs is the next step.

Commentary on Numeracy Difficulties and Disorders: Voices from the Field

Tue, 12 Feb 2013 06:48:58 EST

It's morning calendar time in my class and it's Jake's turn to read the date. I carefully guide him to read Thursday, which he initially confuses for Tuesday, October the...he pauses. Numbers are difficult for him. I am used to this in my class. The students are here for a reason. All of them are at least a year behind the provincial standard and most are two years behind. Eventually a good many of them will be diagnosed with a learning disability. I give Jake a good deal of time to think. Despite the fact that Jake is in grade three, numerals elude him. He simply cannot recall the name of the number. I ask him if he would like some help and when he agrees I suggest he go back to a number he knows and begin counting forward from that point. Of course this would involve a skill commonly referred to as "counting on", a skill that is also difficult for Jake. He returns to the number one and begins to count 1, 2, 3, ... touching each number on the calendar as he progresses, until he reaches the number 18. "Eighteen," he proudly states, and I praise him for his problem solving skills and tenacity. He then adds, "2012," very confidently.

Commentary on Acquisition of Reading Comprehension in English: Voices from the Field

Sat, 12 Jan 2013 12:50:08 EST

Reading comprehension is fundamental to success in school. The research on reading comprehension is helpful to me as a teacher because it presents the nuances of the process and heightens my awareness that it is more than information location and recall. In my role as an educator of the 21st century learner, I find myself in a perpetual state of self-assessment.

Commentary on Reading Acquisition in Bilinguals: Voices from the Field

Sun, 06 Jan 2013 14:08:10 EST

Introduction

In the messy world of the classroom, students do not come to educators in distinct categories, reflecting definitions used in research. Nevertheless, the clearly articulated definitions of relevant terms called for by researchers in the articles here could also help educators. Specifically, clear definitions could be useful for teachers in discerning when and how research findings are relevant to their students and in their practice.

The Role of Working Memory in Numeracy Development

Mon, 19 Nov 2012 08:31:10 EST

When you hold a conversation as you are driving, solve a crossword puzzle, plan a party, calculate the tip at a restaurant or do almost any other complex mental task, you are probably using your working memory.� Working memory allows people to temporarily store and manipulate information while that information is being processed or "worked on" (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974). The contents of working memory must be efficiently updated as a task proceeds in time; this updating requires focusing attention on task-relevant information, ignoring task-irrelevant information, and retrieving needed information from long-term memory. These activities are referred to as "central executive"processes. �Working memory is involved in a variety of academic tasks, including mathematics (Raghubar, Barnes, & Hecht, 2010; Swanson & Jerman, 2006). Research supports the notion that working memory is related to mathematical performance. However, whether it is causally implicated in mathematical development and disabilities or whether it plays only a supportive role is debatable.� Understanding how working memory and mathematical learning and performance are related has implications for math education and intervention.

The Relationship between Spelling and Reading Ability

Thu, 20 Sep 2012 22:28:06 EST

The ability to read well is widely accepted as an educational goal. However, even though the ability to spell is equally important and can often have a profound consequence on employment options, spelling does not enjoy the same prominence as reading.� In a survey of American business leaders in 2004, 95.2% of participants identified spelling (combined with grammar and punctuation) to be either very important or extremely important to good writing, and thus, to employment prospects (The National Commission on Writing for America's Families, Schools, and Colleges, 2004).
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Reading, writing and spelling are complex print-based processes. Of the three, the relationship between reading and spelling is both reciprocal and complementary, wherein reading and spelling advance one another (Hayward, Phillips, Norris, & Khaemba, 2012; Phillips, Hayward, & Norris, 2011).
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Milestones in Bilingual Children's Language Development

Tue, 31 Jul 2012 17:21:04 EST

Introduction

"And, is your baby saying anything yet?": this is a question many young parents frequently hear. Indeed, almost anywhere in the world, starting to speak is considered a key event in a young child's life. Language acquisition specialists have identified several such key events or milestones in young children's language development. If children miss out on certain milestones or differ too much from other children in the age at which they reach these milestones, children may be experiencing problems with the language learning process and may need professional help.

Difficulties in Word Reading and Fluency in English: Interventions

Wed, 25 Jul 2012 09:24:15 EST

Long-term or outcome goals of reading instruction include building complex mental representations of texts, building knowledge and understanding through texts, critically evaluating the text's perspective, and many other aspects of reading comprehension and reading enjoyment. The current paper focuses on word recognition acquisition within the context of becoming an expert reader. Indeed, expert readers recognize words so quickly and effortlessly that cognitive capacity is focused on the higher-level aspects of reading. The goal of word reading instruction is to move children toward automaticity and efficiency in word recognition. This instructional goal is shared for children beginning to read as well as for children who have reading difficulties.

The Influences of Different Number Languages on Numeracy Learning

Sat, 09 Jun 2012 14:30:25 EST

Number naming systems connect number words to quantities.� For example, in English, the word eleven is used for the quantity that is also represented as 11 in Arabic digits.� Number naming systems include words for both small (e.g., one, three) and large quantities (e.g., hundred, thousand), plus rules for combining them (e.g., 346 is three hundred and forty-six). Because each language has its own number naming system, studying these systems allows us to examine how language and culture affect numerical thinking.

Assessment of Reading Difficulties in ESL/ELL Learners: Myths, Research Evidence, and Implications for Assessment

Wed, 30 May 2012 21:34:10 EST

Identifying reliably and effectively and overcoming reading difficulties in English as a second language (ESL) learners (or ELLs - English language learners, as they are commonly referred to in the U.S.) is a complex and challenging topic that has been of concern to educational researchers, educators, speech language pathologists, school psychologists, and policymakers.� ESL learners are often either over-identified (Cummins, 1991) or under-identified (Limbos & Geva, 2001) as having a learning disability. In this brief article, we address six myths (or beliefs) that have been associated with this topic. We state each myth, mention relevant research evidence that either supports or debunks it, and provide some assessment recommendations. We end with a brief discussion of future directions for research with this population.

Reading Acquisition in Young Aboriginal Children

Mon, 09 Apr 2012 22:18:47 EST

Aboriginal (First Nations, Inuit and M�tis) education has a long and tumultuous history in Canada, stemming from decades of colonialism and residential schooling. Residential schooling policies included mandatory graduation ages and were intended to destroy Aboriginal culture and languages. This resulted in widespread social and psychological upheaval in Aboriginal communities (Battiste, 2000). Children, placed in residential schools from the age of 5, were forbidden to speak their Aboriginal language and were required to speak English only and to stop communicating with their siblings (Battiste, 2005).

Mathematics Anxiety

Thu, 05 Apr 2012 21:32:36 EST

The topic of mathematics anxiety is receiving increasing attention within the psychological literature due to its persistent and often detrimental influence on educational achievement. Briefly, mathematics anxiety is a negative affective or emotional reaction to numbers, math, and mathematics calculations (Ashcraft & Moore, 2009).� Richardson and Suinn (1972) originally defined math anxiety as "a feeling of tension and anxiety that interferes with the manipulation of numbers and the solving of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and academic situations" (p. 551).� These situations may include, but are not limited to, calculating the tip on a restaurant bill or taking a consequential math examination (e.g., college entrance). Although some reactions to math may be mild and perhaps insignificant (McLeod, 1994), others are more pronounced or even severe.� As an example, we had a college adult burst into tears because of the anxiety experienced while completing simple subtraction problems (Ashcraft, 2002).

The Role of Early Education in Language and Literacy Development

Tue, 20 Mar 2012 22:42:14 EST

In the United States, many young children attend an array of preschool programs that vary widely in their cost to families, funding sources and administration (public or private), standards, and goals.� Roughly 75 percent of all young children attend preschool at age four and half of these children attend preschool at age three (Barnett, 2011).� Unfortunately, most programs are not of high quality (Karoly, Ghosh-Dastidar, Zellman, Perlman, & Fernyhough, 2008).� Among children in low-income families, participation in effective preschool programs is about 10 percent at age three and 20 percent at age four (Barnett & Lamy, in press). Children in higher-income families have somewhat better access to quality preschool programs.� However, most children even from families that fall in the top half of the income distribution do not attend good preschool programs as judged by standardized observation systems (e.g., an Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale of 5 or higher) (Karoly, Ghosh-Dastidar, Zellman, Perlman, & Fernyhough, 2008).� State standards for the education of young children have risen over the past decade, but vary considerably by state. Most young children do not have access to public Pre-K (Barnett, Epstein, Carolan, Fitzgerald, Ackerman, & Friedman, 2010).

Genetic Basis of Reading Disabilities

Fri, 09 Mar 2012 22:24:52 EST

Developmental dyslexia, also known as Reading Disabilities (RD), are defined as specific difficulties in reading, despite possession of normal intelligence and access to effective classroom instruction. RD is a complex disorder resulting from a combination of genetic and environmental factors and is estimated to affect 5-12% of school-aged children (Gabel, Gibson, Gruen, & LoTurco, 2010). RD tends to persist across the life span, resulting in significant academic, social, and occupational impairments (Katusic et al., 2001; Shaywitz, Shaywitz, Fletcher & Escobar, 1990; Willis, Kabler-Babbitt, & Zuckerman, 2007). �The following section will review the genetic basis of RD, including recent findings and the hypothesized mechanisms by which genetic changes may alter brain structure and function.

Simultaneous Bilingual Acquisition

Thu, 05 Jan 2012 17:44:30 EST

Introduction
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Many children around the world acquire more than one language during the preschool years. For some children, acquisition of two or more languages occurs simultaneously, such as when parents regularly use two languages with their child from birth. Alternatively, it can occur successively, such as when children are exposed to and speak only one language at home during the first one or two years of life and then attend daycare, preschool or elementary school programs where another language is used.
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Math Assessment in Middle Childhood

Fri, 04 Nov 2011 21:49:34 EST

This article provides an overview of math assessment in middle childhood and proposes a general framework for it. It postulates that assessment plays a crucial role in building, solidifying, and expanding the foundations of mathematical understanding. It is an integral part of teaching mathematics and should not be separated from it.
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Middle childhood is a time where problems with understanding math clearly surface and negative attitudes towards the subject become engrained. It is also a time where many students develop "math survival strategies" based on (sometimes incorrect) procedures and partially understood concepts. Middle childhood is therefore a crucial time for intervention.

The Characteristics and Early Prediction of Dyslexia in Chinese-speaking Children

Fri, 14 Oct 2011 15:30:51 EST

Between 5 and 10% of school-aged children have a persistent difficulty in learning to read that is unrelated to general intelligence and education. This difficulty cannot be explained by lack of motivation or sensory deficits (Nopola-Hemmi et al., 2001). Dyslexia is observed in many different languages (Fisher & DeFries, 2002; Shaywitz, Shaywitz, Fletcher, & Escobar, 1990; Stevenson et al., 1982), and Chinese is one of them (Chan & Siegel, 2001; Leong, 1999; Ho, Chan, Tsang, & Lee, 2002; Ho, Law, & Ng, 2000; Ho, Wong, & Chan, 1999; Shu, McBride-Chang, Wu, & Liu, 2006; Woo & Hoosain, 1984; Yin & Weekes, 2003; Zhang, Zhang, Yin, Zhou, & Chang, 1996).
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Compared to alphabetic languages, research on Chinese-speaking children with dyslexia has a much shorter history. Many research questions related to the universal and specific properties of Chinese children with dyslexia are still unanswered.

The Learning Environmental Processes Underlying Writing Acquisition

Mon, 10 Oct 2011 22:11:33 EST

The lackluster writing performance of elementary school students in the U.S. has raised concern about classroom writing instruction. The most recent results from the 4th grade writing subtest of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) revealed that 70% of students did not meet the benchmark for proficient writing (Persky, Daane, & Jin, 2003). In response to these and other data, the National Commission on Writing (2003, 2004) released reports arguing that skillful writing is necessary for both academic and professional success. Consequently, the Commission called for a renewed focus on writing instruction.
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Although writing research is not nearly as well developed as reading research, considerable progress has been made in the last twenty years (Graham, 2006). While much has been learned about how students learn to write both in and out-of school, the focus of this entry is on how students learn to write in the context of elementary-school classrooms.

The Economic Benefits of Literacy

Wed, 31 Aug 2011 23:38:56 EST

Canada enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the world due in large part to our comparatively higher literacy levels. Literacy skill is a key driver of economic and social success both for individuals and nations. Canada has benefited from our comparative advantage in this regard for many years. Technological change, the globalization of trade, and the increasing availability of highly-skilled persons in developing countries are among the challenges facing Canadians today. These challenges will require Canada to commit to increased public investment in programs that improve literacy levels.

Assessment of Word Reading and Reading Fluency in English

Thu, 04 Aug 2011 15:35:11 EST

The only reason for reading is to comprehend the message that an author intended.� ��Despite this fact, assessing word reading and reading fluency is important because accurate and fluent decoding are necessary, though not sufficient, for reading comprehension (Adams, 1990; Fuchs, Fuchs, Hosp, & Jenkins, 2001; Hudson, Lane, Pullen, & Torgesen, 2009; National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000; Schatschneider et al., 2004). Many problems in reading comprehension are caused by an inability to read words accurately and fluently (Fletcher, Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2006).� �

Commentary on Numeracy Difficulties and Disorders

Tue, 02 Aug 2011 16:50:43 EST

Developmental dyscalculia (DD) is a developmental learning disorder affecting the acquisition of school-level arithmetic skills. It is a disorder with serious consequences for life success, as low numeracy skills increase the probability of unemployment, depression, physical illnesses, and even arrest (Parsons & Bynner, 2005). Likewise, it is a crucial predictor of the ability of both patients and health professionals to appropriately use health-care related information, such as dosage of medicine or health statistics (Golbeck, Ahlers-Schmidt, Paschal, & Dismuke, 2005; Hibbard, Peters, Dixon, & Tusler, 2007; Peters, Hibbard, Slovic, & Dieckmann, 2007).
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Mathematics Instruction for Preschoolers

Fri, 29 Jul 2011 11:35:07 EST

Teaching mathematics to young children, prior to formal school entry, is not a new practice. In fact, early childhood mathematics education (ECME) has been around in various forms for hundreds of years (Ginsburg, Lee, & Boyd, 2008). What has altered over time are opinions related to why ECME is important, what mathematics education should accomplish, and how (or whether) mathematics instruction should be provided for such young audiences.

Reading Instruction for English Language Learners

Wed, 06 Jul 2011 12:46:09 EST

English Language Learners (ELLs) are students who do not speak English well enough to allow them to participate fully in mainstream English instruction. In 1990, approximately two million public school students in the United States-one of every 20 in Grades K-12-were classified as ELLs. Today, there are over five million ELLs-one in nine public school students in K-12. This 150% increase has occurred during a period when the overall school population has increased by only about 20%[1].

ESL Children's Reading Development

Sat, 11 Jun 2011 15:23:55 EST

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Students with English as a second language (ESL) enter schools needing to simultaneously learn academic content and attain command of the English language. If they are to reach similar achievement levels as their English-only (EO) peers, they will need to learn with enormous efficiency (August & Shanahan, 2008).� It is essential, then, for educators to provide ESL students-a growing population in industrialized countries worldwide-with ample opportunities to develop their language and reading skills, as well as to develop their knowledge-base for academic success. Importantly, for such instruction to be effective, itsdesign must be informed by a nuanced understanding of ESL learners' reading development, largely a language-based process, from early childhood through adolescence.

Assessment of Language Development in Arabic

Wed, 20 Apr 2011 23:12:32 EST

The Arabic language is spoken by more than 280 million people as a first language (Proch�zka, 2006) across the Middle East and North Africa. Standard Arabic is the language of worship of more than 1.65 billion Muslims around the world (Kettani, 2010). The linguistic situation in the Arabic-speaking communities is marked as diglossic (Ferguson, 1959), which means that the same language has two broad varieties, existing side by side in the community and used for different purposes (Daher, 1998), with different social and literary status (Al-Tamimi, 2001). This is not a recent phenomenon for Arabic (Bakalla, 1981). Based on lexical, syntactic, morphological and phonological differences (Newman, 2002), ever since pre-Islamic time, two forms of Arabic have existed simultaneously: an elaborate codified one (Standard Arabic) and an everyday colloquial one (Sawaie, 1994).

Acquisition of Mathematics in Primary School (Ages 6 through 8): Assessment

Fri, 04 Feb 2011 21:51:09 EST

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In earlier times, and still in many countries, assessment of children ages 6 through 8 in mathematics has been entirely the responsibility of individual teachers (e.g., Gipps et al., 1995). At most, a commercial test might also be occasionally used as a measure of class progress (Gipps et al., 1983). However, more recently, even in this age group, there has been a trend towards more systematic, formal and externally driven assessment for new purposes.
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Word Reading: Sequence of Acquisition

Tue, 04 Jan 2011 17:12:14 EST

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The ability to identify words, first accurately and then automatically, is fundamental to reading development. Reading comprehension builds on accurate word recognition (e.g., Hoover & Gough, 1990; Kendeou, Savage, & van den Broek, 2009). Inaccurate or slow word recognition is a defining feature of dyslexia (e.g., Gersons-Wolfensberger & Ruijssenaars, 1997; Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003), the most common reading disability. This entry presents an overview of how word reading is understood to develop in current theories of reading development. In fact, most best known theories of reading development are theories of word reading development (e.g., Ehri, 1999, 2005; Frith, 1985; Share, 1995; Seymour, 2006, 2008).
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Most children develop some word reading skills before they start school; in fact, many can already read when they enter kindergarten (e.g., Mason, 1980), and the majority (perhaps up to 75%) will learn to read regardless of the school instruction provided (e.g., Liberman & Liberman, 1992). Therefore, we start our review by examining home literacy practices that support reading development. We then examine the pre-alphabetic "reading" children engage in before learning the alphabetic principle (i.e., the understanding that the words are made of letters, and letters can be sequentially translated into their respective sounds to obtain the pronunciation of the word; e.g., Liberman, Shankweiler, & Liberman, 1989), that provides the foundation for the more effective word reading strategies based on letter-sound correspondences. Although we present word reading development as a series of phases, each defined by a different learning task, these phases are only theoretical constructs that help us describe groups of children and seldom offer a complete description of any particular child.
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Fostering Language Development in Arabic

Sun, 26 Dec 2010 11:45:56 EST

There are some 221 million native speakers of Arabic (Lewis, 2009). Over 260,000 Arabic speakers live in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2006), most of them in Qu�bec and Ontario. An estimated 22 million Arabic speakers worldwide, and an estimated 26,000 Arabic speakers in Canada, have some sort of a communication disorder.[1] However, resources for Arabic intervention are scarce.

For Arabic children, speech-language therapy is primarily treatment of their native colloquial Arabic dialect, which is their first language (Al-Buainain, 2003; Shahin, 2003). This article summarizes the state of intervention research for Arabic, and outlines what needs to be done so that it can advance, for the betterment of the Arabic child, family, and social health, both in the Arab world and abroad.
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Methods of Assessment of Young Children's Informal Mathematical Experiences: A Commentary on Tudge

Fri, 23 Apr 2010 13:00:45 EST

In his article for the Encyclopedia of Language and Literacy Development, Tudge (2009) identifies that preschool and early school-aged children have amazing competencies in the area of numeracy, and argues that current methods of assessment tend to vastly underestimate this early knowledge. Accordingly, Tudge identifies four types of methods to assess the informal mathematical experiences of young (preschool) children and discusses strengths and weaknesses of each of these approaches. He suggests that the underestimation of children's early numerical abilities is derived from the informal nature of children's use of numeracy and the inherent biases of the observers. However, Tudge does not address the appropriateness of the published experimental and standardized tests of preschool mathematical ability that are either specifically designed to assess preschool mathematical knowledge, such as the Test of Early Math Abilities-II (TEMA-II), or are designed to test mathematical knowledge as a component of preschool cognitive abilities, such as sub-portions of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development-Mental Scales, Woodcock-Johnson III (WJ-III, Subtests of the Cognitive and Achievement Batteries), and the Early Developmental Inventory (EDI, seven items in the inventory).�Are these tools useful in assessing early numerical skills in preschool children?

Learning Trajectories in Early Mathematics - Sequences of Acquisition and Teaching: A Commentary on Clements and Sarama

Fri, 23 Apr 2010 09:39:35 EST

Clements and Sarama (2009) identify that there are multiple pathways to learning mathematics, and focus specifically on the pathway for counting in their article. One benefit of focusing on a single pathway is that the authors are well able to detail the specific developmental progression and instructional paths that support the goal of understanding in this domain. Although Clements and Sarama invite the reader to view a more comprehensive display of their learning trajectories across two projects (http://ubbuildingblocks.org, www.ubtriad.org ), it would be useful to clarify that there are multiple pathways beyond counting.

Often, parents, childcare professionals, and early primary teachers tend to view 'counting' as the primary mathematical task that they need to support in children. As a result, many parents focus on teaching children the counting words to the exclusion of other mathematical tasks. For example, LeFevre et al. (2009) found that 'Teaching my child to count to 10' was the only consistently cited goal that parents indicated they focused on in the home. This focus is possibly exacerbated by the difficulties that many people have in defining what exactly mathematics is. Notably, the activities that constitute 'math' differ across educational jurisdictions, provinces, and countries.

Clements and Sarama (2009) report that they have identified up to 12 different "Big Ideas" and corresponding learning trajectories. From their "Building Blocks Learning Trajectories Summary" (2005; www.ubtriad.org), these 'Big Ideas' include:
Counting Ordering Numbers Recognizing Number and Subitizing (i.e., the instant recognition of the number of a small group of objects) Knowing different combinations of numbers (termed composing) Adding and Subtracting Multiplying and Dividing Measuring Recognizing Geometric Shapes Composing Geometric Shapes Comparing Geometric Shapes Spatial Sense and Motions Patterning and Early Algebra The 'Big Ideas' identified by Clements and Sarama may or may not correspond well to the streams of mathematics curriculum identified by various Ministries of Education across Canada (e.g., Ontario recognizes five streams of mathematical understanding, of which 'estimation' is omitted from Clements and Sarama's typology).�What is clear, though, is that Clements and Sarama do not preclude that there are other 'Big Ideas' that they have not identified. Rather, what policymakers and educators need to realize is that for any mathematical idea that is recognized, a teacher must identify the paths of learning (Developmental Progression) and paths of teaching (Instructional Tasks) that must occur to achieve the final goal (attaining a level of knowledge that reflects the 'Big Idea').�Policymakers should also recognize the fact that a child's acquisition and comprehension of a particular area of mathematics can look very different than an adult's understanding, particularly at the early stages of development. Hence, children cannot be treated as miniature adults. The curriculum needs to reflect an understanding of the developmental progression of any area of mathematical competency.

Fostering Early Numeracy in the Home, Preschool, and Kindergarten: A Commentary on Blevins-Knabe and Baroody

Wed, 21 Apr 2010 13:52:28 EST

Blevins-Knabe (2008) and Baroody (2009) identify the factors involved in the early learning of mathematical concepts in the home (Blevins-Knabe) and in preschool/Kindergarten (Baroody).�Current research supports both authors' statements that the earliest stages of learning numeracy are foundational for future learning and attainment of mathematics across grades. In fact, current studies have found that a child's performance prior to Grade 1 predicts learning of mathematical concepts up to high school (Duncan et al., 2007).�A major longitudinal study following children throughout school found that math knowledge at the beginning of Grade 1 was the major predictor of overall grade attainment (and not just mathematical attainment) in high school. This suggests that learning math concepts in the preschool years is an important activity for future learning.

Developing Numeracy: Promoting a Rich Learning Environment for Young Children

Tue, 16 Feb 2010 23:49:28 EST

The world of the child is full of opportunities to engage with number and quantity. Indeed, children's intuitive attention to and interest in number emerges at a very early age (Clarke, Clarke, & Cheeseman, 2006; Osana & Royea, 2008), which facilitates the development of an informal understanding of mathematics. Children's informal knowledge then in turn sets the stage for learning more complex mathematical skills and concepts (Baroody, Lai, & Mix, 2006; Sun Lee & Ginsburg, 2007). Although the informal mathematical knowledge of virtually all children will develop in absence of formal instruction (Blevins-Knabe, 2008), the quality of a child's informal knowledge can differ as a function of parental support and the learning environment. As such, educators, scholars, and policy makers have focused recent attention on effective ways to engage young children in mathematics. The goal of this article is to summarize recent research on the characteristics of learning environments that stimulate the mathematical thinking and learning of young children at both the preschool level and in the early elementary school years (i.e., ages 5-8 years).

Cognitive Processes Underlying Numeracy

Fri, 11 Dec 2009 13:31:42 EST

Numeracy skills are essential for mathematical competence, but what underlies numeracy?�Its cognitive underpinnings concern detecting quantity, acquiring meaning for number symbols, and executing numerical operations or calculations. These underlying skills may be domain-specific (i.e., directly related to numerical processing), or domain-general (i.e., related to broader, non-numerical cognitive functions).

Many cognitive skills drive performance during mathematic tasks, as illustrated by the following counting scenario: To count meaningfully, a child must differentiate each individual object in a set, and establish a starting and stopping point. The child must know and recall the labels and sequence of number words. The child must understand basic counting principles such as one-to-one correspondence (i.e., each item is counted once) and order irrelevance (i.e., stopping and starting points are irrelevant to counting accuracy). The child must track which items have been counted, which can be challenging if the items are not presented in a line. Correctly determining "how many there are" depends on cardinal number knowledge, or knowing that the final number reached during counting refers to the quantity of items in the set.

This allegedly simple act of counting requires visual perception, a concept of quantity, number word vocabulary, knowledge of numbers and their relative ordinal positions, long-term verbal memory, retrieval of stored memory, short-term memory, and executive functions such as planning and performance monitoring. Although these skills occur simultaneously, researchers can study the unique contributions each makes to numeracy. This entry summarizes some of the research on the most basic numerical processes underlying numeracy, and also considers some of the relevant domain general skills.

What role do genes play in language skills?

Tue, 01 Dec 2009 11:44:42 EST

Language is a complex behavior that develops with the exposure to competent users, yet also has an extensively documented genetic basis. At the species level, we know there are genes in our DNA that have evolved to make language possible in humans. The FOXP2 gene located on chromosome 7 is one such gene in which a minor mutation (the substitution of one nucleotide for another out of thousands of nucleotides that compose the gene) has had a profound effect on how the human brain developed the ability for language (Enard et al., 2002). Most humans have the same configuration of this gene which partly explains why language is a robust and defining trait of our species. At the individual differences level, however, because there is little variation in the FOXP2 (a rare mutation has been associated with severe language impairment in one extended family, see Lai, Fisher, Hurst, Vargha-Khadem, & Monaco, 2001), it can not explain why some individuals learn language more easily or are more proficient at it than others. This has been the focus of an extensive body of research trying to understand the role genes play in language skill variations across individuals.

Research has tackled this question from two angles. Initial research studies enabled inferences to be made about the role of genes; genes were not measured directly, but family studies were used to see if genetically related individuals were more similar on language skills. These included studies looking at extended families of language impaired individuals (Arnold, 1961; Fisher, Vargha-Khadem, Watkins, Monaco, & Pembrey, 1998; Tallal, Ross, & Curtis, 1989), giving a first indication that genetic causes were at play. But twin studies, of both typically developing and language impaired individuals, have been the main research design used to quantify the relative contribution of genes and environmental causes to language ability and disability. Twins constitute a natural experiment because there are pairs of twins with the same DNA, identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins, and pairs who share 50% of their DNA, fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins. Twins are otherwise born from the same parents and grow up together in the same family. Therefore, the extent to which identical twins are more similar on language skills than their fraternal counterparts is indicative of the relative effect of genes in explaining differences between individuals versus differences due to environmental causes.

Second, with developing technologies, research studies began to measure DNA directly to look for associations between genetic variations across individuals and language skills. Research in this area has mostly focused on the genetic causes of impairment (see the entry by Bishop, 2007, in this Encyclopedia), including speech sound disorders, specific language impairment and reading disorders. But as it is becoming increasingly clear that impairments in language related skills are heterogeneous in nature (i.e., they have many causes including various genetic causes; Bishop, Adams, & Norbury, 2006), and may be the result of a combination of genetic and environmental risks affecting multiple skills (Pennington & Bishop, 2009), there is a strong suspicion that genes involved in impairments also play a role in individual differences of normal language acquisition and skills.

Neuroimaging of Numerical and Mathematical Development

Wed, 14 Oct 2009 11:23:08 EST

In recent years, the advent of non-invasive neuroimaging methods, such as functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) has provided an important complement to behavioral investigations of cognitive processes. Together with traditional neuropsychological studies of brain-damaged patients, these investigations have lead to the creation of a new field of research: Cognitive Neuroscience. The combination of behavioral and neuroscientific empirical studies is starting to reveal how the brain enables the mind. More recently, this approach has been applied to the study of the typical and atypical developmental trajectories of cognitive processes, such as numerical cognition.

Mathematical Development in Middle Childhood

Thu, 10 Sep 2009 14:48:49 EST

Research in children's early numeracy and mathematical skill development, as well as research on how children's mathematical skills, knowledge, and understanding develop during middle childhood (ages 9 through 11) has been relatively scant. Many areas of interest including basic counting, number sense, and addition and subtraction have been well established by the middle grades (Grades 4 to 6). However, there are key numeracy concepts and skills that are acquired during middle childhood that are integral for later learning in areas such as algebra and calculus.

Functional Brain Imaging in Studies of Reading and Dyslexia

Tue, 01 Sep 2009 12:05:15 EST

Data from laboratories around the world indicate that there are a number of interrelated neural systems used in reading, at least two regions in the back of the brain (posterior) as well as distinct and related systems in the front of the brain (anterior). We refer to "systems" rather than "regions" because each of the areas of the brain related to reading generally encompasses more than a single brain region.

Criteria for the Evaluation of Reading Assessment Tools

Tue, 01 Sep 2009 11:33:27 EST

The primary purpose of educational programs is to produce changes in children's level of knowledge and skills. One of the most important skills that needs to be acquired and perfected in school is reading as other learning gains depend heavily on it. The outcome of reading instruction is traceable and measurable. The purpose of the present summary is to help educators understand the variety of outcomes that can be measured and the different criteria that can be used to evaluate reading assessment tools.

Methods for Understanding Literacy Improvements

Thu, 27 Aug 2009 10:16:14 EST

While it may be important for academics to place emphasis on theory and methods in research, practitioners and policymakers mainly want to know the results. However, there may be instances when knowledge about research methods might be of interest to practitioners and policymakers as well. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to explain the place of research methods, specifically in the area of understanding improvements in literacy research. Researchers use a 'theoretical approach' as a way to look at a certain research problem; it helps to contain the focus of the research questions and the breadth of a study. The methodological approach that researchers choose depends on the questions that they want to ask.

It might be fairly said that research in the social sciences (e.g., linguistics, history, political science, psychology, sociology, etc.) has yet to match the achievements of the natural sciences (e.g., chemistry, biology, medical sciences, mathematics, etc.) in the impact of applied social research on everyday life. One reason for this may be that the rules by which scientific progress is actually undertaken have not been specified. When researchers conduct a systematic review, a meta-analysis, or evidence-based research, they look for commonalities between approaches so that they can compare the findings in each study for use in practice or in policy decisions. This leaves research groups focused on synthesizing and reporting differing findings in limbo, since a common approach that constitutes appropriate research methodology and even what constitutes 'knowledge' does not exist. The aim of this paper is to provide a better understanding of what it means to conduct evidence-based research, systematic reviews, and statistical meta-analyses.

Mathematics Instruction in Middle Childhood

Wed, 12 Aug 2009 09:22:23 EST

Mathematics is considered one of the 'basic subjects' in most countries. Methods of teaching, and the topics that are emphasized in teaching, vary over time and place. The ability to understand and deal with numbers has usually been treated as the most central topic, especially at the primary age. However, other topics such as shape and space, measurement, data interpretation, and applications of mathematics to real-world problems are also given importance, especially in the current British curriculum. Even within this topic of number, there has been a lot of debate as to which aspects deserve most emphasis. In recent times, both British and American educationists have recommended a reduced emphasis on written calculation at the early stages, and a greater emphasis on mental calculation, estimation and problem-solving (Cockcroft, 1981; Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001).

Reading in a Biological Context

Thu, 30 Jul 2009 14:59:28 EST

The development of neuroimaging techniques has provided unprecedented insight into the localization of function in the human brain. And yet, if we have learned anything from these endeavours, it is that there is no simple answer to the question 'what are the brain bases of reading'. A number of regions play a critical role in reading. None of these regions are unique to reading; instead, they are engaged by a range of cognitive processes including vision, language and memory. This entry provides a discussion of why there is no single 'reading centre' in the brain. Like a lot of things that have to do with the brain, the story is not a tidy one, but in some ways that is what makes it so interesting. As we will see, the argument surrounding reading and the brain hinges on both the biological and cultural history of language and reading.

First Nations English Dialects in Young Children: Assessment Issues and Supportive Interventions

Tue, 28 Jul 2009 10:44:12 EST

First Nations English dialects are used by Aboriginal people to communicate within their cultural community. These non-standard varieties of English have a central place in social discourse and are key to supporting the individual's identity and community ties (Leap, 1993). Aboriginal people may identify where an individual comes from when they hear the First Nations English dialect.

Scholars in the fields of linguistics and education have documented dialects of Canadian Indigenous English and American Indian English, which are as diverse as the Aboriginal peoples of North America. Regional varieties have been found to share some common linguistic features and discourse rules (Darnell, 1993; Heit & Blair, 1993; Leap, 1993; Mulder, 1982).

First Nations English dialects are evident not only among Aboriginal people who speak their ancestral language, but usage persists in today's generation of Aboriginal people who no longer speak their mother tongue (Leap, 1993; Mulder, 1982). Some Aboriginal students are learning English as a second language, while other students who no longer speak an Indigenous language may be fluent in Standard English or use a fully-fledged dialect of English that is the result of the influence of the Indigenous language (or their mother tongue) on the English language (Heit & Blair, 1993). This phenomenon has relatively recently come to light and educational implications for First Nations language and literacy learning are currently being explored.

In some situations, the Aboriginal family and community may actively reject the dominant culture and language and this serves as a motive for language retention and revitalization efforts. It can be said that First Nations English dialects are used purposely as an indicator of opposition to colonization and assimilation. Nevertheless, First Nations English dialects have become in some communities, "the only remaining trace of the Aboriginal language" (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008, p. 575).

Fostering Reading Fluency in Normally-Developing and At-Risk Children

Fri, 26 Jun 2009 12:06:15 EST

Over the past several decades the study of reading fluency took a back seat in research and education, with the focus going to early processes involved in reading development. Should we teach systematic phonics by showing beginning readers how to sound out the letters and orthographic (spelling) patterns that are used in English (or French)? Or, is it better to begin reading instruction with an emphasis on whole word pattern recognition? The resulting research indicates the importance of developing early understanding of the phonological (i.e., spelling to sound relations) and orthographic (i.e., spelling system) regularities that govern alphabetic writing systems (see Ehri et al., 2001). While many children who learn to decode written words go on to become fluent readers of text, a substantial proportion do not. One national study of American fourth graders found that 44% were dysfluent, even when reading grade appropriate stories (National Reading Panel, 2000).�What is required for fluency beyond the ability to sound out words?

Milestones in Arabic Language Development

Tue, 05 May 2009 09:52:38 EST

Arabic is a Semitic language that is used as a first language by approximately 206 million people and as a second language by about 246 million speakers (Gordon, 2005).�It is characterized by diglossia (Ferguson,1959), a linguistic situation in which two varieties of the same language have a functional distribution, with the spoken variety used in informal and intimate contexts and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the written variety, acquired through literacy and used in written and formal discourse. Each Arab state has its own dialectal variety while MSA is the official language of 20 Arab states. All Arabic speaking children first acquire the dialectal variety as their mother tongue and are only later introduced to MSA through literacy.

Biological Processes Underlying Written Language Acquisition

Tue, 05 May 2009 09:51:34 EST

The National Center for Education Statistics (2003) in the U.S. reported that only about 28% of fourth graders could write at a proficient level or above (i.e., create an effective response to the task in form, content, and language, demonstrate an awareness of the intended audience, use effective organization appropriate to the task, use sufficient elaboration to clarify and enhance the central idea, etc.), 58% wrote at a basic level (i.e., demonstrate appropriate response to the task in form, content, and language, use some supporting details, demonstrate organization appropriate to the task, and demonstrate sufficient command of spelling, grammar, punctuation, and capitalization to communicate to the reader), and 14% wrote below the basic level. These data are compelling in that they indicate the national significance of writing problems in elementary education. In this regard, the development of writing skills in students presents a significant challenge for educators, particularly in this day of high-stakes testing and heightened accountability. While our understanding of the underlying cognitive components of reading has proliferated over the past 20 years, we have only begun to understand the basic neurocognitive and neurobiological factors that may underlie the development of written expression in the formative elementary school years (Edwards, 2003; Graham & Harris, 2005).

The Role of Language in Mathematical Development: Typical and Atypical Pathways

Tue, 05 May 2009 09:51:08 EST

Although the importance of language in children's learning is not in dispute, the specific relations that may hold between linguistic and mathematical development are subject to widespread debate. For some time there has been interest in the spoken forms of numbers, and how these might affect learning. There has also been awareness that mathematical language has special characteristics which can cause difficulties. Consequently we focus here on two specific research questions:
Is the number word sequence a central component in children's mathematical development? Do linguistic constraints affect the development of mathematical concepts? Leading researchers differ in their responses to these questions. The key findings supporting these different viewpoints will be laid out below.

Fostering Early Numeracy in Preschool and Kindergarten

Thu, 30 Apr 2009 10:35:08 EST

How to best help students learn the single-digit (basic) addition facts, such as 3+4=7 and 9+5=14, and related subtraction facts, such as 7-3=4 and 14-9=5, has long been debated (see, e.g., Baroody & Dowker, 2003, particularly chapters 2, 3, 6, and 7). Nevertheless, there is general agreement that children need to achieve fact fluency (Kilpatrick, Swafford, & Findell, 2001). Fact fluency entails generating sums and differences efficiently (quickly and accurately) and applying this knowledge appropriately and flexibly. Over the last four decades, it has become increasingly clear that children's everyday (informal) mathematical knowledge is an important basis for learning school (formal) mathematics (Baroody, Lai, & Mix, 2006; Clements & Sarama, 2004; Ginsburg, Klein, & Starkey, 1998). For example, research indicates that helping children build number sense can promote fact fluency (Baroody, 2006; Baroody, Thompson, & Eiland, 2008; Gersten & Chard, 1999; Jordan, 2007). The aim of this entry is to summarize how the development of informal number sense before grade 1 provides a foundation for the key formal skill of fact fluency in the primary grades.

Learning Trajectories in Early Mathematics - Sequences of Acquisition and Teaching

Thu, 30 Apr 2009 10:02:54 EST

Children follow natural developmental progressions in learning and development. As a simple example, children first learn to crawl, which is followed by walking, running, skipping, and jumping with increased speed and dexterity. Similarly, they follow natural developmental progressions in learning math; they learn mathematical ideas and skills in their own way. When educators understand these developmental progressions, and sequence activities based on them, they can build mathematically enriched learning environments that are developmentally appropriate and effective. These developmental paths are a main component of a learning trajectory.

Methods of Assessment of Young Children's Informal Mathematical Experiences

Thu, 30 Apr 2009 09:30:04 EST

Early in their lives children develop remarkable mathematical competence. Scholars have little understanding about how this occurs, but assume that it develops in the course of children's informal mathematical experiences. Unfortunately, the methods typically used to assess these informal experiences are likely to greatly under-represent them. Scholars, teachers, and parents are unlikely to see involvement in mathematics without close observation, and thus lose opportunities to build on these naturally occurring learning opportunities.
�

The Influence of Gender and Ethnicity on Numeracy Acquisition

Thu, 30 Apr 2009 08:23:30 EST

Females and minorities in the U.S. have made great gains in educational attainment in mathematics-related areas over the past decades. However, statistics suggesting that only 29% and 15% of Ph.D. degrees in mathematics (Andreescu, Gallian, Kane, & Mertz, 2008) and engineering (Hyde & Linn, 2006) respectively are awarded to females, are indicative that gender gaps still exist. A host of factors including biological, cognitive, motivational, and societal influences have been posited to explain the differential math achievement of genders and ethnic groups. But the relative contribution of these factors is unclear, for example, whether individual factors or specific combinations of them are responsible for differences (Royer & Walles, 2007).

The purpose of this article is to summarize the research literature relevant to two primary questions:
What are the differences, if any, between the mathematics performance of males and females and among different ethnic groups? What factors have been hypothesized to explain these differences? In this article, we point out that there are no simple answers to these questions. But there have been some advances made toward understanding these issues.

Neurocognitive Causes of Numerical Difficulties/Disorders

Wed, 29 Apr 2009 00:00:00 EST

Understanding what causes numerical difficulties/disorders (henceforth, NDD) is crucial for the prevention of NDD at earlier stages and for a reliable diagnosis of groups with a high risk factor. Such an understanding requires the integration of scientific findings from different fields investigating at the molecular level (genetics, receptors) or the behaviour-brain relations level. Currently knowledge from most of these fields is rather limited or absent. The main focus of this Encyclopedia entry will therefore be the level of the neurocognitive mechanism(s) that subserve NDD.

Structural Brain Imaging of Reading Ability in Children

Thu, 23 Apr 2009 14:29:30 EST

Despite normal intelligence, adequate exposure to print, individual effort, good instruction, appropriate reading materials, and concerned and engaged parents, children's development in specific cognitive skills, such as reading, may not be adequate. Of interest in this entry is the role of the brain in children's reading acquisition and development, particularly in cases where they experience specific reading difficulties. A primary goal of Neuroscience is to better understand the mysteries of the brain and to link its structure and function with the range of abilities or disabilities experienced by individuals. The two subsequent entries in this "Neuroscience" section of the Encyclopedia deal with complementary topics: (i) B. Shaywitz and S. Shaywitz discuss differences of brain activation patterns measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) of individuals with dyslexia and controls while reading and (ii) S. Smith discusses the association of certain genetic traits, that presumably lead to brain differences, with reading difficulties. The current entry will report recent structural imaging findings of brain regions that appear to be related to the ability to read.

Strategies for Indigenous Language Revitalization and Maintenance

Fri, 03 Apr 2009 16:03:11 EST

Since a time before memory, Indigenous1 languages thrived on Turtle Island (the continent now called North America). More than 500 years ago foreigners arrived from lands afar and brought with them their languages. Through many devastating events such as genocide, colonialism, linguistic imperialism, new diseases, forced relocation, the upset of Indigenous economic, social and political systems, as well as the most likely influential factor - the enforcement of English-only residential schools for all Indigenous children - Indigenous languages declined in use and existence (McCarty, 2003; Spolsky, 2002).

It is estimated that at the time of first contact with Europeans, there were approximately 450 Aboriginal languages and dialects in Canada (Office of the Commissioner of Official Languages, 1992). In the last 100 years alone, at least ten of Canada's Aboriginal languages have become extinct (Norris, 1998), in addition to those lost prior to the last century. There are now approximately 60 Indigenous languages still spoken in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2008). Only three of these 60 languages (i.e., Cree, Inuktitut, and Anishnaabe) are expected to remain and flourish in Aboriginal communities due to their population base (Burnaby, 1996; Norris, 1998). However, new research states that the number of speakers alone is a poor indicator of the health of a language; what is most important is the occurrence of intergenerational language transmission and especially how many children are learning the language (Barrena et al., 2007; Norris, 2003).

Over the past 40-50 years, Indigenous people have begun a process of reclaiming their languages and working towards their revival and use. Many communities are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their methods of revival, while at the same time original speakers of Indigenous languages are passing on with each changing season. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the literature to date on Indigenous language revitalization strategies and to provide discussion questions and future directions for the continuation of Indigenous languages.

Relation between Literacy Skills and the Health of Canadians

Fri, 13 Feb 2009 09:54:18 EST

Over the past two decades there has been a growing interest among researchers and practitioners in the relationship between literacy skills and health. In the United States, this interest was stimulated by a concern about the literacy skills of patients and the impact that low levels of literacy may have on their health status and ability to obtain health services. This, in turn, led to the development of some tools to measure health literacy by family physicians and to studying the impact of health literacy on various health outcomes using these tools in clinical populations.

Short- and Long-Term Outcomes for Children with Primary Language Impairment (PLI)

Fri, 13 Feb 2009 09:34:23 EST

This Encyclopedia entry summarises what we know about outcomes for children with Primary Language Impairment (PLI)1, and considers the potential role of intervention in modifying outcomes. The term "primary language impairment" is employed here rather than Specific Language Impairment (SLI) (Plante, 1998; Stark & Tallal, 1981) to obviate the need for the use of a strict discrepancy definition of SLI. SLI requires tested "normal" non-verbal IQ with a one standard deviation discrepancy between verbal and non-verbal skills, PLI does not. However, the term PLI does retain a distinction between those children whose difficulties are mainly associated with their communication and those for whom their communication difficulties are secondary to other conditions (e.g., autism, cerebral palsy, etc.).

Literacy Interventions for Chinese Children

Mon, 02 Feb 2009 15:06:08 EST

Recent years have seen a rapid increase in research on Chinese children's literacy development. By contrast, research on reading disability in Chinese children is just beginning to emerge. Compared to many alphabetic languages, the number of intervention studies in Chinese is small, and most intervention studies target normally developing children rather than children who are dyslexic or at risk for reading difficulties. This paper discusses Chinese literacy interventions among normally developing and at-risk/dyslexic children. It addresses three areas where research evidence is available: phonological awareness (PA), character structure, and morphological awareness.

Identification and Classification of Reading Disability in the Chinese Language

Fri, 30 Jan 2009 09:07:10 EST

Reading disability, also called developmental dyslexia, has been studied for over a century in countries using alphabetic writing systems. Generally speaking, around 2 to 4 percent of the school population in a Western country may have severe reading disability, while a further 6 percent may have mild to moderate difficulties (e.g., Badian, 1994; Miles & Miles, 1999). The early belief was that reading disability is only a problem for people who speak a Western language (e.g., English, German, and Italian). However, we know today that children who speak an Asian language (e.g., Chinese, Korean, and Japanese) also have difficulties in reading (Chan, Ho, Tsang, Lee, & Chung, 2007; Hirose & Hatta, 1988; Stevenson, Stigler, Lucker, Hsu, & Kitamura, 1982).

Chinese, as the major non-alphabetic language with the largest population of readers in the world, has unique linguistic characteristics that are different from those of alphabetic languages. Identification and classification of reading disability may therefore be different between English and Chinese.

Milestones of Language Development in French

Wed, 28 Jan 2009 09:00:00 EST

A child whose mother tongue is French acquires most of the language system in a relatively short period of time. At about the age of 3 1/2 or 4, the child has a command of the main aspects of phonology, knows the meaning of and is able to use several thousand words, knows how to use basic rules of morphology and syntax correctly, and is able to talk and take part in a conversation. Of course, language acquisition is not complete and progress/improvement will continue to occur. However, in the first years, most of the linguistic system is developed with verbal language. This article focuses on that period and on the phonological, lexical and grammatical dimensions of development.

The underlying issue of this entry is the impact of language on the acquisition process. How do the specific properties of French - a Romance language spoken as a mother tongue in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Quebec and Acadia - influence the overall development of language in young monolingual Francophone children?

Bilingual Education in Aboriginal Communities: Towards a Vibrant Aboriginal Identity

Fri, 19 Dec 2008 09:15:14 EST

When an Italian, Greek, or Portuguese-Canadian child loses his or her heritage language it is a loss for the child, the family and the community. When an Aboriginal child loses his or her language, it is an even greater loss; it is a cultural tragedy. Most Aboriginal languages are on the verge of extinction because of the linguicide associated with European colonialism. Unlike other immigrant groups in Canada who can count on linguistic and cultural support from a homeland, the only resources available to Aboriginal people is themselves. Bilingualism, then, is a life and death issue in terms of the survival and vitality of Aboriginal cultural identity.

Effective Interventions for Numeracy Difficulties/Disorders

Tue, 09 Dec 2008 09:34:42 EST

Numeracy, a term introduced by UK educational policy makers in the 1950s, is a broad term whose definition varies according to viewpoint. It is commonly agreed, however, that it includes number, arithmetic, procedures, problem solving, and measurement. Rather than focusing on numeracy as a whole, interventions often focus on only one of these components.

The body of good quality numeracy intervention research is relatively small (Gersten, Jordan, & Flojo, 2005). To date, many studies fail to meet most of the requirements for high quality intervention studies, which is a reflection of the high monetary cost of and practical difficulties associated with such research. In particular, single-case publications and studies with very small numbers of participants are common, despite the fact that they limit generalization. Despite the limitations of individual studies, summaries and analyses of groups of studies literature reviews and meta-analyses can allow us to make conclusions about intervention effectiveness, especially when single case studies are excluded (e.g., Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002; Kunsch, Jitendra, & Sood, 2007; Malofeeva, 2005; Xin & Jitendra, 1999).

Promoting Literacy Development in Bilingual Contexts

Thu, 27 Nov 2008 16:00:13 EST

Although the definition of bilingualism is a complex issue (for an in-depth discussion, please see Defining Bilingualism), it is an issue that has sparked tremendous interest and debate among policymakers, researchers and parents (e.g., August & Shanahan, 2006; Bailey, 2007; Cummins, 1993; Gersten et al., 2007). One hotly debated issue centers on whether bilingualism is additive or subtractive. Here researchers and educators ask whether literacy instruction should be provided using an additive approach, whereby children's first languages are valued and maintained as they acquire an additional language (Cummins, 1983; Lee & Oxelson, 2006), or within a subtractive framework, in which children acquire the dominant language of the community in a learning setting in which they often lose or fail to develop proficiency in their home language (Wong-Fillmore, 2000).�For example, English-only instruction may reflect a subtractive framework. Advocates of English-only instruction have expressed concerns that bilingual instruction would limit instructional time in English, thereby impeding English reading and language development (Genesee, 1987; Porter, 1990; Rossell & Baker, 1996).�In contrast, proponents of additive approaches, such as bilingual education, believe that bilingualism itself does not interfere with literacy development in either language (Yeung, Marsh, & Suliman, 2000).�Instead, bilingual instruction may facilitate reading development in the dominant language of the community (see Francis, Lesaux, & August, 2006; Slavin & Cheung, 2005).�

Aboriginal Early Language Promotion and Early Intervention

Thu, 27 Nov 2008 14:32:51 EST

Aboriginal community representatives, practitioners, and investigators have long recognized the need for a strategy to ensure optimal language and literacy outcomes for young Aboriginal children. An effective strategy would include supports for early language facilitation in family and community care settings, resources for Indigenous language acquisition, and services to address speech-language difficulties before children start school (Assembly of First Nations, 1988; Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, 1996). Policy makers need to recognize language and literacy development as aspects of inter-generational family development that are relevant to a range of policy areas, including residential school healing programs, community development, adult education, employment, literacy, and social justice.

It is generally acknowledged that there are few peer-reviewed research reports about Aboriginal children's development and speech-language difficulties, which creates gaps in knowledge. This report identifies several areas where research is urgently needed. Until evidence is available, guidelines for innovative approaches to practice are offered in this report based largely on anecdotal insights from practitioners in the field, and community-level efforts reported in the literature about programs.

An Overview of Reading Acquisition

Thu, 27 Nov 2008 13:27:25 EST

The Chinese writing system differs greatly from that of English and may therefore present challenges for children learning Chinese and English simultaneously. With very few exceptions, each Chinese character maps onto both a syllable and a morpheme, which comprise the same spoken unit. For example, in the Chinese compound words, (xue31 ren2; snowman) and (yan3 qiu2; eyeball), each of the morphemes, or simplest units of meanings comprising them (i.e., snow, man, eye, ball), has a given pronunciation and meaning by itself. Therefore, the modern Chinese writing system might best be described as morphosyllabic (Haynes & Carr, 1990; Hoosain, 1991). In modern Chinese, more than 70% of all words are compounds, made up of two or more morphemes (Institute of Language Teaching and Research, 1986). Most Chinese children also learn an alphabetic (or other phonetic coding system) script as an aid to help them read. The most widely used of these, Pinyin, is used to transcribe Mandarin speech using letters from the Roman alphabet. Pinyin transcriptions of Chinese words usually appear together with newly introduced Chinese characters in textbooks for young children to aid pronunciation and comprehension of these words (Siok & Fletcher, 2001).

Spoken Chinese syllables have a relatively simple phonological structure. There are no consonant clusters (e.g., as found in the English word "street") in Chinese. The Chinese language is also marked by lexical tones, which help to distinguish across syllables to represent multiple morphemes. Whereas English uses stress to distinguish across words (e.g., exploit can mean either adventure or to take advantage of depending on which syllable is stressed), Chinese does not make use of stress in this way; rather, lexical tone may serve a somewhat similar function in Chinese at the word level (Chen, Chen, & Dell, 2002; Duanmu, 2007).

Important Processes for Reading Acquisition

Fri, 07 Nov 2008 13:54:31 EST

This article targets the language development of Chinese-speaking children whose families have immigrated to English-speaking countries. Four linguistic and cognitive components of language development critical for these English language learners (ELLs) are discussed: metalinguistic awareness, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. Interconnections between language development and reading are addressed.

Cognitive Processes in the Development of Writing Expertise

Thu, 06 Nov 2008 15:45:56 EST

Writing development builds on children's ability to communicate through speech. However, written communication differs from speech in several important ways, each of which is associated with new skills that the developing writer must acquire. Writing requires graphic representation (i.e., the ability to form letters on the page) and grapheme-phoneme conversion (i.e., letter-to-sound conversion) in order to form words. Writing also requires knowledge of sentence construction. As a communicative strategy, text differs from conversational speech in that the audience is remote. Writers do not receive immediate feedback on whether or not they are achieving their current communicative goals or prompts that might lead to new ones. Successful text must incorporate sophisticated structures for maintaining both cohesion and coherence if readers are to experience sentence-to-sentence flow and gain a global understanding of the writer's message. Learning to write therefore requires development of new skills both at the level for language representation (i.e., moving from aural to visual expression) and message communication (i.e., moving from reliance on interaction with an interlocutor to informational self-sufficiency).

The timecourse of writing development, unlike the development of locomotive skills (e.g., walking, running, jumping, etc.) and speech, is culturally (and, typically, educationally) constrained. Rate of development depends to a large extent on both availability of instruction and degree of practice. Kellogg (2008) argues that genuine expertise is achieved by only a small minority of people and only after upwards of 20 years of practice. Writing researchers have traditionally characterised expert writing as employing explicit problem solving activities (Hayes & Flower, 1980). Scardamalia, Bereiter, and Steinbach (1984) contrasted immature writing strategies in which the text produced closely follows the structure of the writer's mental representation of their topic, with a more advanced approach in which writers adopt strategies that combine topic knowledge with an understanding of discourse conventions and reader needs. Scardamalia and Bereiter (1991) refer to these distinct approaches as, respectively, knowledge telling and knowledge transforming. At the most expert level (perhaps "knowledge crafting", Kellogg, 2008) writers set more sophisticated, reader-focussed goals for their text. This may explain why expert writing often appears more effortful than writing by novices (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1991).

Acquiring writing expertise involves development in (a) knowledge of how text is formed, from the letter level up to conventions for structuring full text, (b) metacognitive strategies for managing writing processes, and (c) effective use of working memory resources. These areas of expertise are closely interrelated. Working memory constraints are associated with the fact that our minds are able to hold only a very limited amount of information available for processing at any point in time. Thus young writers, for whom spelling and letter formation are not well learned, may find that these low-level demands dominate working memory at the expense of determining content or considering readers. As handwriting and spelling skills become better learned (or "automatised") they make less demand on working memory, thus freeing up resources for higher-level processing. Metacognitive strategies act to ensure that appropriate knowledge is brought to bear when it is needed, and also to reduce load on working memory. Producing an outline in advance of writing full text serves this function, as does deliberate reviewing of what has been written.

Identification, classification, and prevalence of developmental dyscalculia

Thu, 06 Nov 2008 14:55:33 EST

Developmental dyscalculia (DD) is a number processing and calculation disorder that has been identified in a similar fashion to other specific learning disorders. That is, the diagnosis is made when the individual's achievement or ability in arithmetic is significantly below that expected for age, schooling, and level of intelligence. This disorder is conceptualized as a hereditary disorder, being present from early childhood, and is not the result of poor or inappropriate schooling, cultural factors or medical conditions (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; WHO, 1996), although these latter conditions can aggravate any learning disability. Although this widely accepted definition appears plausible, findings from recent years require reconsideration firstly of the way DD is defined and secondly of diagnostic criteria.

This paper provides a summary of the best research on the definition and identification of DD, its classification, and prevalence.

Co-morbidity of Developmental Disorders of Mathematics Learning, Reading and Attention

Mon, 03 Nov 2008 11:48:02 EST

Depending on the country of study, 3% to 10% of school age children are inattentive and/or experience difficulties in learning mathematics and/or reading even though they are not of low intelligence and do not suffer from educational deprivation (Lyon, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, 2003; Spencer, Biederman, Wilens, & Faraone, 2002; von Aster & Shalev, 2007; Wilson & Dehaene, 2007). Current trials that are focused on identifying reliable biological markers suggest that these developmental disorders, known as Attention-Deficit\Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD; for hyperactivity and inattention), Mathematic Learning Disabilities (MLD) and Dyslexia (for reading), are due to underlying brain dysfunctions: the prefrontal cortex in ADHD, the Intraparietal Sulcus (IPS) in MLD and the left Parietal Temporal areas in Dyslexia (Cohen Kadosh et al., 2007; Kelly, Margulies, & Castellanos, 2007; Kucian et al., 2006; Price, Holloway, Vesterinen, Rasanen, & Ansari, 2007; Shaywitz, Lyon, & Shaywitz, 2006; Shaywitz & Shaywitz, 2005).

More recently it has been argued that MLD is the result of specific disabilities in basic numerical processing (i.e., intuitions for quantities resulting in mental representation of quantities or magnitudes; see, for example, Butterworth 2005b; Wilson & Dehaene, 2007). However, this might be surprising because behavioral deficits seen in MLD are heterogeneous (i.e. varied behaviour patterns across children) and also because, as in the case of many other developmental disorders (Frith, 2001; Gilger & Kaplan, 2001; Karmiloff-Smith, 2006), multiple problems are the rule, and pure disorders apply to a minority of cases only. That is, a child whose development is atypical in only numerosity understanding is unusual. Specifically, studies show that only a minority of children experiencing outstanding mathematical learning difficulties have isolated MLD. Rather, 20%-60% of children with MLD have associated learning problems such as dyslexia or ADHD (Curry & Stabile, 2004; Lewis, Hitch, & Walker, 1994; Semrud-Clikeman et al., 1992; Shalev, Manor, & Gross-Tsur, 2005). Why is this? Is there a common cause or are multiple developmental disorders the result of multiple dysfunctions? This is a serious concern suggesting that progress and consensus in the study of MLD have been limited by some conceptual issues that need to be addressed. Accordingly, the broad aim of this review is to study how specific cognitive functions promote mathematic learning disabilities. Therefore, because co-morbidity creates challenges for characterizing disorders and their causes (Angold, 1999; Caron & Rutter, 1991), MLD as well as co-occurring MLD+ADHD and MLD+Dyslexia are reviewed.

Here, the focus is on the behavioral and cognitive manifestations of these developmental disorders.

The Effect of Family Literacy Interventions On Children's Acquisition of Reading: From Kindergarten to Grade 3

Mon, 03 Nov 2008 11:19:41 EST

Educators believe that parents can help their child learn to read. But what is the evidence that supports the idea that involving parents in their child's literacy acquisition will result in better outcomes for the children? And if parent involvement does matter, what kinds of parent-child interactions are associated with improvements in children's literacy acquisition? The goal of this report was to review the scientific literature on parent involvement in the acquisition of literacy from kindergarten to grade 3.

Parents can actively encourage children to engage in learning in the home setting and provide learning opportunities for their children.�Some examples of home-based involvement include reviewing a child's homework, spending time working with a child on reading and writing skills, bringing home learning materials such as books or educational videos for a child, or talking to a child about the parent's love for learning. In the present research synthesis, we focused on parent-child activities occurring at home that aimed at improving children's literacy.

The research synthesis reported here is different from the previous reviews because it examined a broader array of parent-child activities and because it selected studies that assessed the causal role of parent involvement on literacy (Bus, van IJzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995; Scarborough & Dobrich, 1994; Toomey, 1993; Topping & Lindsay, 1992). As such, only studies with a control group were used in the present synthesis. Assessing the causal role of parent involvement would not be possible from an analysis of studies with other research designs such as interventions without control groups, or descriptive and correlational studies that document the relations between parent involvement and child literacy, but do not control for alternative explanations of the findings.

In the present review, parent involvement in literacy acquisition was narrowly defined to include parent-child activities that focus on reading. No decisions or judgments were made ahead of time on the type of parent intervention to be included, and, therefore, a broad search of the research literature was conducted. Reading acquisition was used as a general term that refers to the early literacy behaviors of children in kindergarten as well as the more advanced behaviors of children in grade 3. Therefore, reading acquisition includes early literacy behaviors such as knowledge of letter names and letter sounds, phoneme awareness, as well as early word reading, word recognition, and reading comprehension. Meta-analytic procedures were used because they allow one to combine results from different studies to provide a test of the overall effect of parent involvement on children's literacy as well as a test of similarity in the size of the effects across studies. After conducting an extensive search of the literature, 14 different studies were selected for inclusion.

Mathematics Instruction in Primary School: The First Three Years

Wed, 29 Oct 2008 13:39:23 EST

The major task children must accomplish in the first two or three years of school is to establish clear connections between quantities and numbers. They also must learn to use numbers to represent relations between quantities and to operate with numbers (e.g., calculate) to solve problems. In today's world, they must also learn to use technology to assist them in this process.

Numbers and quantities are not the same. "Quantities, when measured, have numerical value, but we need not measure them or know their measures to reason about them. You can think of your height, another person's height, and the amount by which one of you is taller than the other without having to know the actual values" (Thompson, 1993, pp. 165-166). However, when we learn to represent quantities using numbers, we increase the precision and power of our reasoning about quantities.

In order to understand the meaning of numbers, children must understand much about quantities. For example, they need to understand that if two quantities are different, they are represented by different numbers; if they are the same, they are represented by the same number; if a quantity changes, the number used to represent it also changes; if you add and subtract the same amount to a quantity, the number does not change.

Young children's understanding of quantities and their counting skills are relatively independent of each other. For example, when young children (aged about four years) are asked to share sweets fairly among two recipients, they establish a temporal one-to-one correspondence between the sweets they are sharing, by using a one-for-me one-for-your distribution procedure. If one asks them whether the two recipients have the same amount of sweets to eat, they will correctly say that this is so. But if you ask them to count how many sweets one recipient has and then tell you how many the other one has without counting, many (about 60%) will not know what to say: they do not deduce the number from the knowledge that the two recipients received equal amounts (Frydman & Bryant, 1988; Piaget, 1952). Young children are also notorious for not using counting when they need to create a quantity that is the same as another one; even if they know how to count, they may just look at the number in one set and use perceptual estimates to create the second quantity, a strategy that does not necessarily work (Cowan & Daniels, 1989; Michie, 1984; Saxe, Guberman, & Gearhart, 1987).

Sequence of Reading Acquisition in Bilinguals

Wed, 29 Oct 2008 13:31:43 EST

There are three broad stages of learning to read in alphabetic systems for both monolingual and bilingual children. In the first, or pre-reading stage, children acquire awareness of text and preliminary ideas about how books are used and how words are represented in them. In the second, or decoding stage (sometimes called the "recoding" stage), children acquire the ability to recognize and read the basic forms of many simple words by determining the relation between alphabetic symbols and the sounds (either syllabic or phonemic elements) the symbols represent. Importantly, at the second stage, reading fluency is limited and insufficient to support learning about a variety of topics through independent reading. In the third, or fluent reading stage, children achieve a high level of proficiency, allowing them to learn from reading - in the prior stages children tend to be limited to learning about reading. For monolingual children learning to read in English, the pre-reading stage usually pertains to preschool ages, the decoding stage to kindergarten through second grade or so, and the fluent reading stage is in place by fourth grade or so.

In general, it can be said that bilingual children go through the three reading acquisition stages at roughly the same pace as monolingual children do. But there are several qualifications to make in regard to this claim: (1) there are important differences among orthographies (writing systems) across languages, and these differences can affect how the reading acquisition stages play out; (2) bilingualism can be simultaneous bilingualism from birth, can occur as second language (L2) learning in childhood or adulthood, can involve high proficiency command of two languages, strong command of one language with weaker command of the other and so on; these different forms of bilingualism play roles in how the stages of acquisition of reading emerge in each language; and (3) transfer of reading skills or reading prerequisites from one language to the other can help the bilingual learner (Cummins, 1984; Durgunoglu, 1998), but transfer can be limited or perhaps even reversed (to become interference between languages) if conditions associated with items (1) and (2) are not optimal to support transfer. It is only when we take account of items (1) to (3) that we can usefully investigate optimal methods of instruction for reading in bilingual children, whether the goal is reading in only one of the two languages or in both of them ("biliteracy").

Contribution of Language Skills to Long-term Outcomes for Children from Disadvantaged Backgrounds

Wed, 15 Oct 2008 15:46:31 EST

Among developed nations there remains a persistent incidence of childhood poverty and of unequal academic and long-term outcomes for children of different socioeconomic, racial, and linguistic minority status backgrounds. For example, in 2006, 39% of US children under the age of 18 lived in families with incomes below the federal poverty level, and 17% lived in very poor families. Children under the age of 3 were the most likely to live in low-income families (Douglas-Hall & Chau, 2007). Similarly, in 2004 13% of all Canadian children under the age of 18 lived in low-income families (Fleury, 2008). The incidence of childhood poverty has not decreased appreciably over the last 20 years in either Canada or the US, even during periods of sustained economic growth (Douglas-Hall & Chau, 2007; Fleury, 2008). At the same time, the proportion of children from ethnic/linguistic minority families is increasing dramatically. It is estimated that by 2030, non-Hispanic White children will account for fewer than 50% of all US children (Hernandez, Denton, & McCartney, 2008). While exposure to two or more languages is not necessarily a risk factor (Genesee, 2006), linguistic minority children continue to be over-represented among the poor in many developed countries. These demographic patterns have implications for both education and labor policy, given that group-level demographic characteristics are associated with differential language and literacy development and with academic and employment outcomes.

Word Reading Instruction Methods: The Evidence Concerning Phonics

Wed, 16 Jul 2008 11:22:21 EST

The primary goal of this short entry is to explore some issues concerning the teaching of word reading skills to young children, as well as the best evidence on the most effective reading instruction methods. This entry will thus consider controversies regarding the use of phonics, and will discuss statistical meta-analytic studies and systematic and critical evidence-based reviews from Canada, the US, the UK, and The Netherlands (analyzing English). These different forms of review articles are the focus here as they probably provide the most reliable evidence across studies of the effectiveness of teaching methods. The reviewed research suggests that the explicit teaching of phonics is an important part of effective early literacy programs. The relative effectiveness of various phonics programs will also be considered.

Social Skills Fuel Language Acquisition

Thu, 26 Jun 2008 10:07:29 EST

From the instant infants greet the world, they are immersed in a rich social environment constructed and shaped by their parents, caregivers, siblings, and others. Language is one key medium through which social and cultural exchanges occur. Infants and children are exposed to meaning-relevant communication through face-to-face interaction as well as through observation of others' language use, and this communication is crucial for development of interpersonal understanding as well as learning about the world in general. Social processes fuel children's language acquisition, and the social bases underlying language acquisition are a central piece of the puzzle when investigating the acquisition process. We turn now to three specific questions shaping research regarding the social underpinnings of language acquisition.

Fostering Early Numeracy at Home

Wed, 25 Jun 2008 14:49:29 EST

Information about mathematics is everywhere in the life of a preschooler, in the patterns and regularities that exist in the natural and cultural world. This information supports the development of mathematical understanding in the child. However, much of the meaning and usefulness of this information may not be obvious to the child. Although children can learn early math concepts on their own, adults can facilitate the process to optimize their learning (Ginsburg, Cannon, Eisenband, & Pappas, 2006).

The Causal Effects of Genes on Language Disorders across Clinical Conditions

Wed, 25 Jun 2008 11:30:07 EST

Language acquisition is an important part of young children's early development. When children's language does not appear when expected or is immature for their ages, they are faced with daunting challenges-they struggle to make themselves understood by their families; they encounter difficulties establishing healthy friendships with other children; and they are likely to experience academic difficulties in school, especially with reading. Above all else, because there is no well-established scientific account of the cause of language impairments, the children and their parents encounter intuitive and often misleading assumptions about causation. People may assume that these children are not trying hard enough to learn language or are intellectually limited. They may also assume that their parents are not expecting them to use language or are not reading or talking enough to their children. Although these assumptions can be well intended, they are often not accurate and can add to the burdens of affected children and their families.

Estimates of the prevalence of children with language impairments vary from study to study, but a good working approximation is 7% for 6-year-old children who do not have other disabilities. The estimate rises to 10% if children with borderline nonverbal intelligence are also included. An additional 1-2% can be added when considering those children who have other disabilities, such as intellectual deficits or conditions such as hearing impairment, autism spectrum, Fragile X, and Williams syndrome. For all children with language impairments the identification of causal agents could move us forward in prevention and intervention, and lessen the great social cost as these youngsters prepare for adulthood and struggle to enter the work place and develop an independent lifestyle.

The scientific challenges of determining the etiology (causes) of language impairment are impressive. First, we do not have a full account of what causes typically developing children to acquire language so quickly; therefore we cannot start with an established causal mechanism as a place to look for possible differences related to language impairment. Second, language is a complicated system, with multiple dimensions that interact in subtle ways. After decades of detailed inquiry there has been substantial progress in mapping the ways in which various dimensions of language unfold over time in typically developing children. Much less is known about this unfolding in children with language impairments. Even so, it is clear from available evidence that some dimensions of language can be stronger or weaker than others when language impairments exist. This suggests that different dimensions of language may emerge from different causal mechanisms. Instead of a single causal mechanism affecting all dimensions of language equally, multiple causal mechanisms are implicated. Third, language acquisition and language impairments unfold over time, along with other growth phenomena, as children change from toddlers to school-age to adolescents. Reading ability is a later development that becomes closely linked with language impairments and is thought to share underlying causal mechanisms.

At the same time, advances in genetics bring new scientific methods for investigating causal mechanisms. This paper provides a synopsis of current genetics research related to language impairments in children.

Look Who's Counting! The 123s of Children's Mathematical Development During the Early School Years

Fri, 20 Jun 2008 14:29:06 EST

In contrast to the wealth of information available for literacy skills, knowledge about children's numeracy skills is still emerging (Berch & Mazzocco, 2007). With the increased realization that mathematics is a crucial part of our everyday lives, researchers, educators and policy makers are now interested in examining the development of children's numeracy skills. Numeracy research is a "hot topic," and many educators and researchers are working to map out children's development and flag warning signs of difficulty.

Early Milestones in the Development of Spoken English

Thu, 22 May 2008 13:53:51 EST

Although there are differences in rate of learning, children learn the major forms and functions of English in a predictable sequence. This makes it possible to specify milestones of development that may be useful to clinicians, teachers, or parents interested in tracking the progress of an individual child. This article describes a set of milestones that are readily observable and that illustrate the emergence of language from the child's growing capacities for speech production, social communication, and symbol use. We present the milestones in a general developmental order, but in real life, the "next" achievement often emerges before the first one is completely mastered, and as complexity increases, the timing of these achievements becomes more variable from child to child.

Fostering Reading Acquisition in French Immersion

Fri, 28 Mar 2008 10:49:59 EST

Although Canadian French immersion programs have been shown to be very successful since their beginning in 1965 in the suburb of Montreal, researchers have found high dropout rates in some regions of the country due in part to reading difficulties (Hogan & Harris, 2005; Mannavarayan, 2001; Stern, 1991). Grade 7 students have noted themselves that reading academic content in French can be difficult (Bournot-Trites & S�ror, 2003). Therefore, it is important that educators are able to foster high levels of reading proficiency in French immersion students. Also, educators must be able to identify students who might be at-risk for reading difficulties as early as kindergarten or grade 1 in order to provide these students with additional support. To do this, it is necessary to know, on the one hand, the best predictors of decoding and reading comprehension in French as a second language and, more precisely, French immersion, and, on the other hand which intervention programs are most effective for supporting students with reading difficulties. This paper summarizes research findings on why reading is important in French immersion, the best predictors of decoding and reading comprehension, and intervention programs that have been shown to be effective in French immersion.

Assessment of Reading Acquisition in Bilinguals

Thu, 27 Mar 2008 13:00:08 EST

The assessment of bilinguals is complex due to many diverse factors. Firstly, the definition of bilingualism is not clear and is influenced by multiple factors such as the age of acquisition of the second language (L2) and continued exposure to the first language (L1). Popular definitions of bilingualism conceptualize language knowledge as being a binary category-whether one is classified as having acquired two languages or not (Brutt-Griffler & Varghese, 2004; Valdez & Figueora, 1994). However, bilingualism should be thought of as being on a continuum as this more accurately reflects reality, where one can have varying levels of proficiency in two languages, regardless of how and when they were acquired. For a more detailed discussion of the definitions of bilingualism, please see the following entry: DEFINING BILINGUALISM For the purpose of this paper, bilinguals will be defined as sequential bilinguals who are learning the majority language as L2 at school and in the community. These learners are first and second generation immigrants, and are the most common type of bilingual learners in Canada (Statistics Canada, 2001).

Language and literacy skills are comprised of multiple subskills. This paper will demonstrate that some linguistic skills are highly related across languages, while other skills are less likely to be related. Factors that are highly related across languages could potentially be measured in either L1 or L2. Factors that are not related or are weakly related across languages are good candidates for assessment in both L1 and L2, where adequate measures and personnel are available.

Assessment of Reading Ability in French immersion Students

Wed, 26 Mar 2008 14:43:42 EST

Because Canada is an officially bilingual country, many English-speaking parents choose to place their children in French immersion programs so that they can learn to speak the other official language. Parents often hope that this will give their children an advantage later in life. However, not all children are successful in early French immersion programs; some struggle and eventually switch to English-only programs (Bruck, 1985; Obadia & Th�riault, 1997). It would be advantageous to be able to assess children when they are in kindergarten to determine which children are likely to have difficulty so that remedial help can be given as soon as possible. The first section of this entry discusses studies that have investigated whether any of a variety of measures that can be given in kindergarten are good predictors of future English and French reading ability in French immersion students.

Once formal reading instruction begins, accurate assessment of students' reading ability is essential to plan instruction and to evaluate the effectiveness of French immersion programs. While there are many tests available to assess English reading ability, largely due to the products developed for the American market, there are few available to assess children's French reading ability, and even fewer designed for students who are learning French as a second language. The second section of this entry discusses literacy assessment tools for French immersion students.

Large-Scale Literacy Assessments of French Immersion Students

Wed, 26 Mar 2008 14:07:14 EST

Much of the assessment of French immersion students' literacy skills is done by their teachers using tests or assignments that the teachers develop themselves. This type of assessment is informative regarding whether students have met the specific literacy objectives of the teacher. However, at times, stakeholders wish to gather information from large numbers of students in order to determine the percentage of students who have attained a provincial, national, or international standard of literacy, or to make comparisons of literacy skills across programs, schools, or countries. Examples of large-scale testing programs are the province-wide literacy tests administered by many Canadian provinces, and the Program for International Student Assessment, which has a literacy component. There are several important issues that arise with respect to French immersion students' participation in these tests (Alberta Department of Education, 1990). In this entry, these issues are discussed, along with the choices that provinces have made concerning these issues in their current literacy testing programs. In addition, recent published findings from provincial and international assessments are discussed.

Defining Bilingualism

Wed, 26 Mar 2008 12:07:02 EST

The definition of bilingualism is complex and is influenced by multiple factors such as the age of acquisition of the second language, continued exposure to the first language (L1), relative skill in each language and the circumstances under which each language is learned. Popular definitions of bilingualism conceptualize language knowledge as being a binary category-whether one is classified as having acquired two languages or not (Brutt-Griffler & Varghese, 2004). However, bilingualism should be thought of as being on a continuum, where one can have varying levels of proficiency in two languages, regardless of how and when they were acquired. In addition, language and literacy skills are comprised of multiple subskills. In any given language, bilinguals might be highly proficient in one domain of skills but not the other. For example, a person might show high oral language skills and limited reading skills. The problems in defining bilingualism and the consequences of bilingualism on specific reading related skills will be explored throughout this paper.

Diagnosis of Specific Language Impairment

Wed, 26 Mar 2008 11:52:27 EST

The acquisition of language is one of the signature achievements of childhood. Adequate language functioning includes the ability to understand what others say (also known as receptive language or language comprehension) and to produce utterances comprehensible to others (also known as expressive language or language production). Language capabilities can be differentiated further into several subdomains, including the knowledge and use of (a) words (also known as lexical, semantic, or vocabulary development); (b) sequences of words (also known as grammatical or syntactic development); (c) linguistic forms in social interactions (also known as pragmatic development); and (d) the system of speech sounds (also known as phonology). Children with specific language impairment (SLI) are broadly defined as displaying significant difficulties in one or more of these language domains. These difficulties cannot readily be explained by deficits in other aspects of development that are linked to language acquisition. Such aspects include intelligence, hearing, oral-motor skills, emotional developmental, and language exposure. However, due to the multiple aspects of language that may be affected, the difficulties of separating language from other developmental skills, and the variability in the course of language development within and across individual children, the precise criteria for diagnosing SLI have been the subject of debate for more than 20 years.

Why Spelling Is Important and How To Teach It Effectively

Tue, 22 Jan 2008 14:57:52 EST

Spelling is a code that uses letter sequences to represent specific words that have an associated pronunciation and meaning within the mental dictionary. Three kinds of codes contribute to spelling: a phonological code (coding and awareness of sounds in spoken words), an orthographic code (coding and awareness of letters in written words), and a morphological code (word parts at the beginning of words that modify shade of meaning and at end of words that mark tense, number, or part of speech). For example, the word "jumped" has five small sounds in it: /j/, /u/, /m/, /p/, and /t/ (these sounds are called phonemes).�However, it has six letters. That is because the last two letters correspond to a word part (morpheme) that marks the past tense but corresponds to a single sound. In other words, that sound might be /d/ as in "named" or /ed/ as in "wanted."

Other sources of knowledge also contribute to spelling. These include vocabulary knowledge(semantic features or meaning clues), phonotactics (permissible and probable sound sequences, patterns, and positions in spoken words), and orthotactics (permissible and probable letter sequences, patterns, and positions in written words). For example, in English, words do not begin with the /m/ sound followed by the /l/ sound or generally end with /h/. Also, u not a follows q and the letter x does not double at the end of words but l, f, and s may. Further complicating matters is that the same word pronunciation may be associated with multiple meanings, which linguists call polysemy. Syntax (part of speech for a particular word and the permissible word order of the language) provides the clues that help the writer clarify which of the multiple meanings for that pronunciation is intended (e.g., He wound the clock. The wound did not heal. The boy read the red book. )

Learning Environments Underlying Literacy Acquisition

Wed, 19 Dec 2007 11:31:36 EST

New rigorous research provides important insights into classroom learning environments underlying children's literacy acquisition, how students can be better served in classrooms, and how to prepare teachers to provide more effective instruction. Increasingly, however, it is understood that literacy instruction occurs in the context of a larger system (Connor, Son, Hindman et al., 2005; Morrison, Bachman, & Connor, 2005). Thus, as we explore learning environments that contribute to children's literacy acquisition, it is with the recognition that such learning environments operate throughout a larger system - home, community, and school.

Reading Comprehension Instruction

Tue, 20 Nov 2007 10:57:02 EST

In successful reading, a reader infers word meanings from morphological knowledge and contextual knowledge (McCutchen & Logan, 2011) and infers meaning from text by using relevant background knowledge (Norris & Phillips, 2008).� Inference-making is essential for the comprehension of and interpretation of text (Graesser, 2007). This apparently simple process of inferring raises many difficult questions. This entry addresses some of the most vexing and common questions on reading comprehension instruction.

Fostering Language Development in Children from Disadvantaged Backgrounds

Mon, 22 Oct 2007 16:13:37 EST

Early language development is rooted in the interactions children have with their parents, significant caregivers, childcare providers, and peers. These early social exchanges both foster developing language skills and provide a vital foundation for children's school readiness and academic achievement.

Countless studies indicate that social risk factors, such as chronic poverty and low parental education, pose serious obstacles to children's early language development and subsequent school performance. The long-term effects of such risks create a challenge for remedial programs, which many times fail to succeed at the goal of "leveling the playing field". Because risks such as poverty and low parental education are prevalent in minority populations, children from ethnic and racial minority backgrounds are more likely to display poor academic outcomes and school drop out than the population at large. This entry addresses the importance of supporting language development and learning early in life, and highlights the need to better promote language competencies in children from low-income and minority backgrounds.��

Assessment of French Language Development

Mon, 22 Oct 2007 15:59:52 EST

Language assessment is a complex process. There are several types of tools that can be used to assess children's language, each with its own advantages and limitations. There are fewer measures available in French than in English, a phenomenon that is partially due to the relative lack of available data on typical French-language development. Several recent efforts, however, have attempted to fill this gap by adapting measures available in other languages or by creating new measures specifically for the French language.

Spelling Research: Classroom Implications

Mon, 22 Oct 2007 15:39:57 EST

Becoming a skilled speller is a complex, life-long process. Spelling maturity requires the knowledge of increasingly sophisticated language patterns on the levels of phonology, orthography, and morphology. It also demands the use of a variety of spelling strategies to deal with irregular spelling features.

Linguistic Factors in Spelling Development

Tue, 16 Oct 2007 11:12:17 EST

Views of spelling development in English have been influenced by our notions about the nature of the writing system and by prevailing theories of learning. Until the 1960s, the English writing system was seen as complex and illogical. This led to the idea that spelling is a form of rote memorization or serial learning, types of learning that were widely studied at the time. As language researchers began to point to previously unacknowledged regularities in the relations between spoken and printed English (e.g., Chomsky & Halle, 1968; Venezky, 1970), and as cognitive psychologists began to see people as active learners, views of spelling development changed. It became apparent that children have the ability to actively search for structure in written language. Spelling was increasingly seen a creative process of symbolizing the linguistic structure of words, not just a learned habit. Modern research on spelling development has focused on children's acquisition of three important types of linguistic knowledge: phonological, orthographic, and morphological.

Reading Comprehension: Its Nature and Development

Tue, 25 Sep 2007 11:13:06 EST

Reading comprehension is the process by which we understand the texts we read. It is the purpose of reading, why we teach it, and why we care about it. It is also the prerequisite for meaningful learning from text. As I discuss in this entry, reading comprehension is complex, and we are still far from a complete understanding of it. But we have learned a great deal. My purpose in this paper is to review recent research and theory around three basic questions: (1) What is reading comprehension?, (2) What factors contribute to the development of reading comprehension?, and (3) Who are the "poor comprehenders"? This entry sketches answers to these questions and provides links to sources in which they are treated in more depth. Reading comprehension does not develop in a vacuum, in isolation from other language and literacy processes, so this entry should be read in conjunction with the others in this section on reading comprehension, and with those in other sections.

Assessment of Reading Comprehension

Fri, 21 Sep 2007 10:45:42 EST

Current definitions acknowledge that reading comprehension involves the construction of meaning from text using a wide variety of skills and knowledge (e.g., National Reading Panel, 2002; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 2009 Reading Framework Committee defines reading comprehension as ..."an active and complex process that involves understanding written text, developing and interpreting meaning, and using meaning as appropriate to type of text, purpose and situation (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2005, p. 2). To construct meaning, readers must decode words fluently, understand vocabulary, make inferences, and relate the ideas in text to their prior knowledge and experiences. These skills vary with age, experience, instruction, context, and motivation so both the processes and the products of reading comprehension are constructive, multidimensional, developmental, and variable. Thus, reading comprehension is difficult to define simply and measure neatly.

Assessment of reading comprehension has been controversial because (a) summative measures of reading have been used in high-stakes tests to make comparisons about proficiency levels of students and (b) researchers have shown how the complex interaction of many factors can influence the assessment of comprehension across texts, instruction, and response formats. Sweet (2005) summarized the findings of the 2002 RAND Reading Study Group by noting that:

Current available assessments in the field of reading comprehension generate persistent complaints that these instruments: inadequately represent the complexity of the target domain, conflate comprehension with vocabulary, domain-specific knowledge, word reading ability, and other reader capacities involved in comprehension, do not rest on an understanding of reading comprehension as a developmental process or as a product of instruction, do not examine the assumptions underlying the relation of successful performance to the dominant group's interests and values, are not useful for teachers, tend to narrow the curriculum, are unidimensional and method-dependent, often failing to address even minimal criteria for reliability and validity. (pp. 4-5) From the first reading tests at the turn of the 20th century to the "cognitive revolution" in the 1970s, the dominant method of assessing reading comprehension required students to read passages silently and to respond to short-answer or multiple-choice questions (Pearson & Hamm, 2005). The traditional measurement of reading comprehension remains popular today because the quantitative scores on the same scales provide summative measures of reading that can be used to sort and compare students. In contrast, cognitive approaches acknowledge that measures of reading comprehension are variable and indirect indicators, such as oral and written responses to text, that serve as formative measures that are useful for instruction and remediation (Fletcher, 2006; Johnston, 1984). Choosing a measure of reading comprehension therefore depends on the purpose of assessment.

Early Literacy Development: Sequence of Acquisition

Tue, 04 Sep 2007 06:50:40 EST

Literacy is complex and requires the integration and coordination of many cognitive, perceptual, and linguistic skills and abilities. Literacy acquisition takes place gradually over time and the initial phases of development are occupied with the growth of precursor skills or enabling abilities more than with conventional literacy skills such as decoding, reading comprehension, or writing. In order to detail a specific sequence of growth and development of early literacy it is first necessary to identify the precursor skills or emerging abilities that appear early in the acquisition of literacy or that predate its acquisition, but that are clearly implicated in later literacy achievement. These skills are not well integrated in the early stages of literacy acquisition, and development implies not only increases in skill or ability, but also increases in the integration and coordination of these diverse skills. Most research on these issues has focused on reading, but some information on precursor writing skills and their development is beginning to emerge.

Research-Based Instructional Strategies for Promoting Children's Early Literacy Skills

Tue, 04 Sep 2007 02:56:25 EST

Well-developed reading and writing skills are crucial to success in today's society. Yet, national surveys of children's reading achievement indicate that many children are failing to develop these skills. For instance, the National Assessment of Educational Progress (National Center for Educational Statistics, 2003) reveals that approximately 38% of 4th grade children in the United States fail to achieve basic levels of reading. The proportions rated as below basic levels are even higher for 4th grade children from lower income families, ethnic minority groups, and English-language learners. Over the past two decades, a consensus has emerged that children's reading and writing abilities are founded on skills that begin developing long before children enter formal schooling. These early or "emergent" literacy skills are closely linked with children's later achievement. Many children who have difficulty learning to read and write in elementary school enter kindergarten and first grade without sufficient levels of these emergent literacy skills to take maximal advantage of reading instruction. Identification and use of effective instructional strategies with preschool children may enhance children's ability to become proficient readers.

Assessing Early Literacy: On the Importance of a Clear Definition

Mon, 13 Aug 2007 08:54:22 EST

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To assess young children's literacy knowledge accurately, it is useful, if not necessary, to have a clear definition of the behaviors to be assessed. Examination of the early and emergent literacy research shows that there are both broad and narrow definitions of early literacy. Broad definitions are useful because they help us keep sight of long-term goals, as well as view the child as a whole. Narrow definitions are also useful because they allow us to understand pathways of development, as well as the relations among different child behaviors and child knowledge. Herein, a narrow definition of early literacy is proposed and the advantages of such a definition for assessing child behaviors are discussed (1S�n�chal, LeFevre, Smith-Colton, & Colton, 2001).

Learning About Literacy: Social Factors and Reading Acquisition

Mon, 30 Jul 2007 10:16:22 EST

Parents are the major socializing force in most young children's lives, although siblings and peers, as well as preschool teachers, are involved in this process as well. These individuals also play an important role in the engagement of young children in literacy events. Interactions between children and adults are seen as "the primary medium by which literacy is acquired" (Pianta, 2004, p. 175). Interactions with others around print (Purcell-Gates, 1996), as well as general talk about events not present (i.e., engagement in decontextualized language) (Snow, 1991) have been shown to play key roles in children's literacy development. Interactions around print can take many forms. Perhaps the most studied parent-child interaction around print involves storybook reading. Storybook reading has been shown to support young children's language development as well as some later literacy skills (Senechal, LeFevre, Thomas, & Daley, 1998).

Multiple factors relate to the quality and quantity of parental interactions with their children around literacy events. For example, cultural factors have been shown to relate to parents' engagement with children in literacy events (McNaughton, 2006). In addition, socio-economic factors have been associated with children's literacy knowledge. It is widely known that children from low socio-economic status(SES) families achieve less in school-based reading and writing (Askov, 2004; Juel, 2006). Children attending schools with a greater population of families of low SES backgrounds may be less successful in literacy learning (Snow, Burns, & Griffith, 1998). This finding has led to the suggestion that differences between the home and school environment may be responsible for the degree of risk associated with literacy development. Other evidence, however, indicates that activities engaged in by parents, together with the overall quality of the home learning environment, can override social class factors (Sylva, Melhuish, Sammons, Siraj-Blatchford, & Taggart, 2000).

Assessment of Language Learning in English Speaking Children

Tue, 05 Jun 2007 10:46:40 EST

Language assessment is potentially as varied and complex as human language itself. This article focuses on initial oral language learning, but will address issues that are pertinent across a wider range of language forms and learners. It presents major research findings related to assessment rationale and methodology, and identifies questions yet to be answered in these two areas. The final section considers the implications of language diversity for assessment.

Identifying a Standard for Assessment and Intervention of Speech Sound Disorders (SSD) in Children: Comments on Prezas and Hodson, Rvachew, and Lewis

Wed, 30 May 2007 09:40:49 EST

Children with speech sound disorders (SSDs) make up the majority of speech-language pathology caseloads. In light of this information it is critical that speech-language pathologists (SLPs) carry out consistent base assessments and treatment interventions to ensure maximum use of the limited resources available to these children. Any speech-language pathologist (SLP) can attest to the fact that there are mass shortages of SLPs in Canada and that they have unmanageable caseloads. SLPs must engage in the most efficient methods to provide service to all clients in order to increase the quality of therapy outcomes and to assist with caseload management decisions (Rvachew, 2006).

Speech Sound Disorders: Comments on Prezas and Hodson, Rvachew, and Lewis

Wed, 30 May 2007 09:09:45 EST

Speech sound disorders (SSDs) are the most common communication disorders seen by speech-language pathologists (SLPs). The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's (ASHA) 2006 schools survey indicates that 91% of school-based SLPs servedclients with articulation/phonological disorders (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 2006). SSDs are also highly prevalent in the preschool population (Gierut, 1998).

The impacts of SSDs are social, academic and economic. Children with SSDs often require other types of remedial services with 50% to 70% demonstrating general academic difficulty through grade 12 (Gierut, 1998). There is also a relationship between SSDs and subsequent reading, writing, spelling and mathematical abilities (Gierut, 1998).

Long-term effects of SSDs indicate that educational and occupational outcomes are significantly different from the outcomes of peers with normal childhood speech production skills. Specifically, lower grades, more remedial help, completion of fewer years of formal education, and higher frequency of jobs considered semi-skilled or unskilled were reported (Felsenfeld, Broen & McGue, 1994).

In the information age of the 21st century, the ability to communicate is essential to occupational success. The Conference Board of Canada in their Employability Skills 2000+ indicates a Fundamental Skill is one in which an employee can "... speak so others pay attention and understand" (The Conference Board of Canada, 2000). SSDs affect this fundamental skill and may, as a result, affect the individual's economic future.

SLPs play a critical role in the evaluation, diagnosis and treatment of SSDs. The three articles presented in the Encyclopedia by Prezas and Hodson, Rvachew, and Lewis reinforce the significance of these areas and outline important issues regarding future research and outcomes of children with SSDs.

Effective Interventions for Specific Language Impairment

Thu, 24 May 2007 09:34:34 EST

Specific Language Impairment (SLI) is diagnosed in children who evidence significant developmental difficulty which manifests primarily in the area of language. The term "language" is used here to refer to difficulty in aspects such as vocabulary and grammar, and is differentiated from "speech" impairments such as articulation impairments or stuttering. Language is an important part of almost all daily activities, social and academic. As a result, language impairments have a significant impact on children's success and well-being. This article discusses the main types of interventions available for the remediation of language impairment in childhood and their efficacy. Language impairment in childhood can occur as the primary diagnostic factor or as part of a more general developmental disorder (specific versus non-specific language impairment). In some respects, the intervention approach may vary depending on the children's diagnostic category in order to take into account differences in developmental profiles and learning styles. To a large extent, however, interventions are more similar than different across diagnostic categories, being tailored to fit the individual child's language level, cognitive ability, communicative needs and interests. This review will, however, focus on studies on children whose primary deficit is in the area of language.

Social Consequence of Low Language/Literacy Skills

Fri, 11 May 2007 15:04:22 EST

Low literacy is Canada's hidden deficit. It is the barrier to full participation in society for about 9 million people. Strong literacy skills are an essential building block for future learning and self-reliance. Poor literacy skills lead to a lifetime of economic and social insecurity for individuals and their children.
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This is the century when living and working demand ever higher levels of literacy and self-reliance. There are several reasons for this: (1) new technologies and intense competition push Canadian employers to climb the value-added chain, which means they need workers with the ability to learn new skills (The Tomorrow Project, 2005); (2) computer use is now a prerequisite for job search and access to information; and (3) as governments curb their role in regulating economic activity and strengthening the social fabric, citizens increasingly have to organize and finance their own education, training and social supports. In short, citizens today are required to negotiate complex arrangements with governments, employers and peers. Even managing one's own health demands high literacy and coping skills.
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Yet, as we begin the century, we know that 9 million working age Canadians would have trouble coping with such challenges. Fully 42 % of Canadians aged 16 to 65 (48% for all adults) do not have the literacy skills considered necessary to live and work in today's society (Statistics Canada and OECD, 2005). And the most vulnerable populations are recent immigrants and people of Aboriginal origin.
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Low literacy is more prevalent among older Canadians, but there is strong evidence that the literacy of the next generation is at risk: 28% of Canadian 6-year-olds entering Grade 1 have cognitive or behavioural challenges which, if they continue, will impair their ability to learn and to progress in school (Willms, 2002). Additionally, 38% of young adults aged 16 to 25 have low literacy skills (HRSDC and Statistics Canada, 2005).
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While the intermediate outcomes of literacy and learning are knowledge, skills, competencies and attributes, Desjardins (2004) identifies the final outcomes of literacy and learning as follows: Psychological well-being: self-respect, happiness, identity, decision-making; Economic well-being: financial support, productivity, wealth; Physical well-being: health, nutrition, safety; Social well-being: relations, friendships, empathy, civic involvement, democratic empowerment. When all these final outcomes are achieved, a person is equipped for life. He or she will have the capacity to cope with setbacks as well as to seize opportunities. This is a person with resilience and self-reliance.
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The first steps toward literacy development begin in the early years as the child acquires the social and cognitive skills required for reading, writing, and arithmetic, which are the building blocks for future learning. These skills in turn open the door to later success at work, at home and in the community. In contrast, setbacks in the early years become a handicap which can impede success over a life time. A child who does not acquire these basic skills will struggle with school work and be at risk for dropping out of high school. These young people are more likely to engage in risky activities such as substance abuse and committing a crime (Schweinhart, DNA). They are also likely to report a lower health status than someone on a positive trajectory.
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The complexity of the four final outcomes means that it is not possible to present one bottom-line number to describe the social costs of low literacy skills in Canada. As a result, this review attempts to provide a framework for thinking about the challenge and to highlight promising avenues for reducing those costs.
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Literacy Outcomes in French Immersion

Sat, 21 Apr 2007 09:12:03 EST

Introduction

There are over 300,000 English-speaking students attending French immersion programs in Canada (CPF, 2006). In many forms of immersion, students are taught literacy skills in French before receiving formal literacy instruction in English. In some cases, the delay in teaching literacy in English lasts until Grade 3, or even later. Since their inception in 1965 in St. Lambert, Quebec, these programs have raised a number of educational and research questions because they contradict the commonsense notion that initial reading and writing skills should be taught in a language that students already know. To teach initial literacy skills in a language which students have not mastered orally, it might be thought, puts their acquisition of reading and writing skills in jeopardy. This brief review summarizes research that has addressed these concerns. Since these are concerns linked to early immersion programs, these programs are the focus of the review.

What Causes Specific Language Impairment in Children?

Mon, 26 Mar 2007 13:52:48 EST

Talking comes so naturally to most children that one seldom pauses to consider the enormous complexity of the achievement. Understanding just how the human brain manages to learn language-typically in the space of around 4 short years-is still a long way off. Perhaps as remarkable as the speed with which young humans learn language is the robustness of this process in the face of adverse conditions (Bishop & Mogford, 1993). Most children will learn to talk adequately even if they are exposed to impoverished language input from adults or are visually impaired and thus unable to see what is being talked about. Children who are unable to speak because of physical disability, and those who cannot hear what others say to them, will nevertheless learn to communicate by other means, provided they are exposed to alternative systems of communication such as sign language.

There are, however, exceptions to this general rule of speedy and robust language acquisition: Children with specific language impairment (SLI) have major problems in learning to talk, despite showing normal development in all other areas (see Table 1). Thus, a typical 7- or 8-year-old child with SLI may talk like a 3-year-old, using simplified speech sounds, with words strung together in short, ungrammatical strings-e.g., "me go there," rather than "I went there." SLI is a heterogeneous category, varying in both severity and profile of disorder, but in most cases it is possible to demonstrate problems with both understanding and producing spoken language; for example, the child may have difficulty using toys to act out a sentence such as "the boy is chased by the dog," showing confusion as to who is doing what to whom. Language impairment in SLI is puzzling precisely because it occurs in children who are otherwise normally developing, with no hearing problems or physical handicaps that could explain the difficulties.

The prevalence of SLI has been estimated at around 7% (Tomblin et al., 1997), although this will vary with both the diagnostic criteria and children's age: Long-term language impairments that persist into adulthood are less common than milder delays in preschoolers, which may resolve with time (Bishop & Adams, 1990).

Characteristics of Specific Language Impairment (SLI)

Diagnostic criteria
Language is significantly below level expected from age and IQ, usually interpreted as scoring in the lowest 10% on a standardized test of expressive and/or receptive language Nonverbal IQ and nonlinguistic aspects of development (self-help skills, social skills) fall within broadly normal limits Language difficulties cannot be accounted for by hearing loss, physical abnormality of the speech apparatus, or environmental deprivation Language difficulties are not caused by brain damage Common presenting features*
Delay in starting to talk; first words may not appear until 2 years of age or later Immature or deviant production of speech sounds, especially in preschool children Use of simplified grammatical structures, such as omission of past tense endings or the auxiliary ''is,'' well beyond the age when this is usually mastered Restricted vocabulary, in both production and comprehension Weak verbal short-term memory, as evidenced in tasks requiring repetition of words or sentences Difficulties in understanding complex language, especially when the speaker talks rapidly
*SLI shows substantial heterogeneity, as well as age-related change, and diagnosis does not depend on presence or absence of specific language characteristics.

Prevalence of Speech and Language Disorders in Children

Wed, 21 Mar 2007 18:31:47 EST

To communicate effectively, children must master language, the conventional code used to convey thoughts and ideas, and speech, the complex and rapid motor movements that translate such ideas into spoken words. Both language and speech are essential for sharing feelings, ideas, and information with others. Most young children acquire these communication skills effortlessly, but some experience difficulties in learning to understand and use the language they hear around them. These children have speech or language disorders, which may put them at high risk for associated learning, social, and behavioural problems (Bishop & Leonard, 2000).

How many children have speech or language disorders? This question is important to parents, professionals, policymakers, and researchers who wish to understand communication disorders and optimize assessment and intervention services for these children (Enderby & Pickstone, 2005). The answer requires estimates of prevalence, "the proportion of people in a defined population who have a particular condition at any one time" (Byles, 2005, p. 2). However, several challenges make it surprisingly difficult to obtain accurate estimates of the prevalence of various speech and language disorders in children.

First, accurate prevalence figures require an accepted definition of a particular condition and a reliable method for identifying whether or not a child is affected (Law, Boyle, Harris, Harkness, & Nye, 2000). Speech and language disorders, however, are complex developmental conditions with varied behavioural manifestations (Lubker & Tomblin, 1998). Thus, there is little consensus on how best to define and identify these disorders (Nelson, Nygren, Walker, & Panoscha, 2006). Two well-known diagnostic schemes (American Psychiatric Association, 2000; World Health Organization, 1994) include definitions and criteria for various childhood speech and language disorders. The two schemes, however, have not been scientifically validated, are not entirely consistent with each other, and differ markedly from those often used in research or clinical practice (Johnson & Beitchman, 2006).

A second challenge is that prevalence estimates must be based on large, representative, community samples to ensure that all affected children are identified. Clinical samples are not optimal for determining prevalence, as children who are referred for speech-language services are known to differ systematically from those identified in population samples (Johnson et al., 1999; Zhang & Tomblin, 2000). Possible biases in the referral and service systems can only be uncovered when prevalence in the community has been estimated accurately.

Third, the nature of the disorders may change as children mature, thereby influencing prevalence estimates. Thus, ideally, prevalence data should be collected across the lifespan for speech and language disorders (Craig & Tran, 2005; Campbell et al., 2003).

Accurate prevalence estimates are not, however, particularly valuable in and of themselves. Rather, they provide key starting points for other important inquiries about childhood speech and language disorders (Law et al., 2000; Pickstone & Enderby, 2005). Lifespan prevalence data are valuable in understanding the natural history, course, and prognosis of these disorders. Prevalence estimates also allow for assessment of possible risk and protective factors. For example, a family history of speech and language disorders may increase risk for childhood communication disorders, whereas high quality daycare experiences may decrease risk, acting as a protective factor. Risk and protective factors provide hints on causality of the disorders, as well as on prevention or intervention strategies that might help to reduce their adverse impacts on individuals and society. The key research questions below focus on the prevalence of three common types of childhood communication disorders (language, speech sound, and stuttering). A brief description of each disorder is followed, in order, by a consideration of relevant definitional issues and a summary of available prevalence data, based on community samples in which disorders were verified with a replicable procedure. �

Short- and Long-term Outcomes for Children with Speech Sound Disorders

Tue, 20 Mar 2007 09:13:33 EST

The most common types of speech or language problems reported in children are speech sound disorders (SSDs). SSDs include both errors of articulation or phonetic structure (errors due to poor motor abilities associated with the production of speech-sounds) and phonological errors (errors in applying linguistic rules to combine sounds to form words).� SSDs are highly prevalent in preschool children, approximately 16% of children at 3 years of age (Campbell, Dollaghan, & Rockette, 2003) with an estimated 3.8% of children continuing to present with speech delay at 6 years of age (Shriberg, Tomblin, & McSweeny, 1999). More than half of these children encounter later academic difficulties in language, reading, and spelling (Lewis, Freebairn, & Taylor, 2000; Bishop & Adams, 1990; Lewis, Ekelman, & Aram, 1989; Flax, Realpe-Bonilla, Hirsch, Brzustowicz, Bartlett, & Tallal, 2003; Aram & Hall, 1990) and often require other types of remedial services, with 50-70% exhibiting general academic difficulty through grade 12 (Gierut, 1998).

The residual effects of an early childhood speech sound disorder (SSD) may be life-long. Adults with a history of SSDs continue to perform more poorly than adults without a history of SSDs on measures of articulation, and receptive and expressive language (Felsenfeld, Broen, & McGue, 1994; Lewis, Freebairn, Hansen, Miscimarra, Iyengar, & Taylor, 2007). Further, adults with a history of SSDs reported that they required more remedial services throughout their academic careers and completed fewer years of formal education than adults without earlier SSDs. The importance of communication and information skills and technologies in the work place will continue to increase in the future; and the individual who has a communication disorder will thus be at a disadvantage in this regard. An individual's future occupational success can be improved greatly through the early identification of communication disorders, establishment of their causes, and subsequent intervention (Van & Holte, 2003).

Classroom Acoustics to Support Student Learning

Mon, 19 Mar 2007 13:38:32 EST

Good acoustical quality is critical for a classroom to function well for its intended principal purpose. In elementary school classrooms, most learning involves listening to the teacher and to each other (Goodland, 1983).� Even quite modest amounts of background noise or reverberation (i.e., many delayed reflections of the original sound) can interfere with speech perception and, consequently, can impair educational outcomes.
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Speech intelligibility studies indicate that students' ability to recognize speech sounds is reduced for younger children.� This problem is frequently not appreciated by adults, who are better able to recognize speech in the presence of noise. Research has shown that noise exposure affects educational outcomes, and provides evidence of mechanisms to explain the effects of noise on learning. Careful attention to acoustical design is essential for creating an effective learning environment.�

Diagnostic Evaluation of Children with Speech Sound Disorders

Mon, 19 Mar 2007 13:24:36 EST

Diagnostic evaluation is a prime responsibility for speech-language pathologists (SLPs) in communication sciences and disorders. It is important to differentiate the diagnostic evaluation (the focus of this entry) from a screening procedure, which is conducted to provide preliminary information to determine if a more comprehensive examination is needed (Bernthal & Bankson, 2004; Hodson, 2007). In the assessment of a child with a primary Speech Sound Disorder (SSD), SLPs need to consider valid data from a thorough scientific investigation. Although an evaluation typically is the first step in diagnosing a child with SSD, it is important to keep in mind that "diagnosis is ongoing." Nonetheless, the initial assessment is an essential foundation. During this evaluation process, SLPs need to incorporate evidenced-based practices.

The Influence of Vocabulary on Reading Acquisition

Thu, 15 Feb 2007 09:59:55 EST

Successful reading requires being able to identify written words and know what those words mean.�In recent years, an improved understanding of the skills that underlie reading words and techniques that successfully teach those skills have led to better word reading and better comprehension of written text in first grade.
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Unfortunately, learning to read written texts is not the same as learning to understand written texts. It is a problem that many children who successfully learn to read in grade one or two are nonetheless unable to understand books they need to read by grade three or four.�The main reason for this is a lack of adequate vocabulary (Becker, 1977; Chall, Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990; Chall & Conard, 1991; Lescaux & Kieffer, 2010; Scarborough, 2001; Silverman & Crandall, 2010; Spira, Bracken, & Fischel, 2005; Storch & Whitehouse, 2002).�The National Reading Panel (2000) has identified vocabulary as one of five key aspects of literacy.

Fostering Early Literacy at Home (in Normally-Developing and At-Risk Children)

Thu, 31 Aug 2006 14:53:26 EST

Although formal training in literacy usually starts when a child begins school, literacy acquisition is built upon a foundation of language skills that are learned at home. Recently, increased attention has been focused on these important early literacy skills because of large variation in children's mastery of these skills at school entry. This variation has important implications for how easily children acquire literacy skills, and parents are crucial contributors to this variation. Here, some preliteracy skills are first described, followed by discussion of some ways that parents can help children acquire those skills. These can be helpful both for children who are developing normally as well as for children who are at risk because of impairments in language or because they live with environmental stressors such as poverty.

Effective Interventions for the Treatment of Speech Sound Disorders

Wed, 30 Aug 2006 13:57:23 EST

Children with a primary Speech Sound Disorder (SSD) make more errors in pronunciation than expected for their age, and the errors are not caused by other disorders such as hearing impairment, cleft palate , or cerebral palsy (Shriberg, Austin, Lewis, McSweeney, & Wilson, 1997).� Children with this kind of speech problem should be treated by a speech-language pathologist (SLP). Most of the children who are treated by SLPs have some form of SSD (Broomfield & Dodd, 2004).� SSDs develop during childhood and can persist for many years after diagnosis (Law, Boyle, Harris, Harkness, & Nye, 2000). Children with an SSD are at-risk for social problems and are often bullied at school (Silverman, 1992; Hall, 1991).� They may also have trouble at school because of poor phonological awareness and weak reading skills (Catts, 1993; Raitano, Pennington, Tunick, Boada, & Shriberg, 2004; Rvachew, Ohberg, Grawburg, & Heyding, 2003; Rvachew & Grawburg, 2006; Lewis, Freebairn & Taylor, 2000; Webster & Plante, 1992; Webster, Plante & Couvillion, 1997; Bird, Bishop, & Freeman, 1995; Shriberg & Kwiatkowski, 1988; Larrivee & Catts, 1999).� In turn, these difficulties have an impact on employment opportunities in adulthood (Felsenfeld, Broen, & McGue, 1994). Given the social and economic cost of speech difficulties for individuals with SSD and society at large, it is important to identify the most effective and efficient speech therapy practices for the treatment of SSD.

Services and Programs Supporting Young Children's Language Development: Comments on Girolametto, and Thiemann and Warren

Wed, 31 May 2006 11:03:40 EST

Language delays and disorders are an important issue in child development. Beyond the number of young children with language disorders, the long-term impact of such disorders increases the importance of programs to support young children's language acquisition. Children with early language disorders are at risk for social and behavioural problems as well as academic failure, including literacy difficulties (Fey, Catts & Larivee, 1995). Furthermore, most school-aged children diagnosed with learning disabilities have language as a component of their learning disability (Paul, 2001). In broader societal terms, estimates have been made of the economic impacts of low language and literacy achievement (McCain & Mustard, 2004). Thus, the topic of these two texts is an important one for children and their families, and for society at large. Girolametto, Thiemann and Warren are among the most influential researchers in the area of treatment programs for language disorders in young children. In these papers, Thiemann and Warren conduct a broad review of the evidence for early language intervention while Girolametto specifically focuses his review on research into parent training programs.

Programs Supporting Young Children's Language Development

Wed, 31 May 2006 11:01:29 EST

In this paper we document recent evidence of effective language approaches for children with severe language delays, secondary to autism or other developmental disabilities (DD). Following a discussion of some current challenges in the field, we describe an early language intervention model, and the need to foster and measure success in implementation of such approaches by caregivers, early interventionists and other adults. The paper concludes with a discussion of two research priorities necessary to move the field forward in developing optimal language interventions - further longitudinal analyses of the efficacy of different treatment approaches based on specific treatment and child variables, and the potential impact of differential treatment intensity.

Services and Programs Supporting Young Children's Language Development

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:59:03 EST

Developmental language disorders place children at risk for long-term social, emotional and academic difficulties (Beitchman, Wilson, Johnson, Atkinson, Young, Adlaf, et al., 2001). Intervention programs vary considerably in terms of service delivery method and may include direct intervention by a speech-language pathologist (for individual children or groups of children) or indirect intervention in which the speech-language pathologist trains a caregiver to conduct intervention (parent training, consultation with early childhood educators).

Literacy and Its Impact on Child Development: Comments on Tomblin and S�n�chal

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:56:13 EST

Only within the last decade has the concept of "literacy" become a central focus in early education. Previously, experts rarely viewed literacy as an essential aspect of healthy growth and development in young children. The current rate of reading problems among school children remains unacceptably high. Estimates show that about 40% of fourth graders struggle with reading at even basic levels and there is a markedly disproportionate representation of children who are poor and who belong to ethnic or racial minorities among those who struggle with reading (National Assessment of Education Progress, 2005). The paradigm shift of the last decade, which received a great push forward with the 1998 publication by the United States' National Research Council titled Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Children, has increasingly emphasized early education as the context in which solutions to these pressing problems are most likely to have effect. Early education is the time in which young children develop skills, knowledge and interest in the code-based and meaning aspects of written and spoken language. I refer to these abilities and interests here as "pre-literacy" abilities to emphasize their role as precursors to conventional literacy. The current emphasis on pre-literacy as an essential part of early education draws upon two growing bodies of research showing that:
(1) Individual differences among children in pre-literacy skills are meaningful, early differences contribute significantly to longitudinal outcomes in children's reading achievement (Storch & Whitehurst, 2002); and
(2) The prevalence of reading difficulties is more likely to be influenced through prevention rather than remediation, since once a particular child shows a reading delay in elementary school, the odds suggest that a return to healthy progress is quite unlikely (Juel, Griffith & Gough, 1986).

Literacy as an Outcome of Language Development and its Impact on Children's Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:52:58 EST

One of the most striking accomplishments of the preschool years is the child's effortless development of speech and language. With respect to spoken language development, the preschool years represent a period of learning language. As children enter school, they are expected to use these newly developed language skills as tools for learning and increasingly for social negotiation. The important role of spoken and written communication in school-aged children's lives suggests that individual differences in these skills may entail risks in terms of broader academic and psychosocial competence.

Literacy, Language and Emotional Development

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:50:31 EST

Learning to read is the central achievement of early elementary schooling. Children bring with them experiences, knowledge and skills that facilitate their acquisition of efficient and accurate reading skills. The view adopted here is that children will spend their first three years of school learning to read, and then will start using reading to learn (Chall, 1983). Moreover, accurate comprehension of written texts presupposes that children can read individual words effortlessly (Adams, 1990). Early educators will want to understand what skills children need to ensure successful learning in grades one, two and three. This report will focus on early language skills that have been linked to efficient word reading and reading comprehension, namely children's awareness of the spoken language and their vocabulary. In addition, the report will present some of the limited evidence showing that the degree to which children learn to read successfully is linked to their self-concepts.

Language Development and Literacy: Comments on Beitchman and Cohen

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:40:27 EST

Beitchman and Cohen both address the issues of language development and its impact on academic, psychosocial and emotional development, by focusing on the poor outcomes of children with primary difficulties in speech and language impairments (i.e. problems that cannot be accounted for by any other condition, known as specific language impairments or SLI). Both also focus on impairments in structural aspects of receptive and expressive language skills (phonology, semantics, syntax, morphosyntax, narrative discourse, auditory verbal information processing) and accord little attention to the outcome of impairments in pragmatic aspects (the appropriate use of language within social, situational and communicative contexts). Nonetheless, it is important to understand that speech and language impairments may also occur as secondary difficulties to a primary condition such as autism, hearing impairment, neurological impairment, general developmental difficulties, behavioural or emotional difficulties, psychosocial adversity (e.g. adverse rearing conditions associated with growing up in poverty, orphanages, refugee camps or war zones) or immigration (English language learners).

Beitchman approaches the topic from the research context of his 20-year prospective longitudinal epidemiological study of five-year-old English-speaking children from one geographic region of Canada. By contrast, Cohen situates the topic more broadly, calling upon evidence from national and international studies of clinical and epidemiological populations, using cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Thus, while Beitchman's study provides a rich source of data on the outcomes of SLI in an English-speaking context for Canadian policy and service perspectives, the results presented by Cohen provide an opportunity to look for independent replication of findings across studies and English-speaking cultures.

The Impact of Language Development on the Psychosocial and Emotional Development of Young Children

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:34:07 EST

Language and communicative competence provide critical tools for learning, engaging in social relationships, and behaviour and emotion regulation from infancy onward. This report describes the evolution of language development in the first five years of life and its interrelationship with psychosocial and emotional development and disorder across the life span. Implications for prevention, intervention, education and public policy will also be discussed.

Language Development and its Impact on Children's Psychosocial and Emotional Development

Wed, 31 May 2006 10:20:35 EST

Language is central to social life; speech and language development is a cornerstone for successful outcomes later in life. Speech and language competency does not progress normally for a sizeable number of children, however, and research shows that these children are at greater risk for later psychosocial problems than children who do not have speech or language impairments.

Studies have produced compelling evidence that the child and adolescent psychosocial outcomes of language impairment are disproportionately problematic; some disadvantages persist into adulthood. These outcomes include continued disadvantage in speech and language competence, intellectual functioning, and educational adjustment and achievement, psychosocial difficulties, and increased probability of psychiatric disorder. Key insights from the studies highlighted in this fact sheet imply a need for early identification of language problems and effective intervention addressing language problems and related cognitive, academic, behavioural and psychosocial concerns, and prevention of victimization in this population. Support for children and adolescents who have language impairment is particularly important in the school context.

Factors that Influence Language Development

Wed, 24 May 2006 13:05:21 EST

Learning to talk is one of the most visible and important achievements of early childhood. In a matter of months, and without explicit teaching, toddlers move from hesitant single words to fluent sentences, and from a small vocabulary to one that is growing by six new words a day. New language tools mean new opportunities for social understanding, for learning about the world, and for sharing experiences, pleasures and needs.